EX@SENSATIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS OF IMAGES

SENSATIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS OF IMAGES
―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING MEMORIES

This "SENSATIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS OF IMAGES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING MEMORIES" can be called "this book". This book, "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS," and "FACING TENDENCIES FALLING INTO A VICIOUS CIRCLE―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING HABITS" can be called "These Books". These books can also be looked upon as a book, and each of them can also be looked upon as a chapter of the book. These books as a book can also be called "A TRILOGY ON PSYCHOLOGY". These books, "EXISTENCE AND LIBERTY," "DETAILS OF EXISTENCE AND LIBERTY," "SEPARATING EACH STATE POWER INTO THE TWO SYSTEMS OF THAT OF THE RULE OF LAW PROTECTING LIBERAL RIGHTS AND THAT OF THE HUMAN RULE SECURING SOCIAL RIGHTS," and "PARTICULAR THINGS AND GENERAL THINGS" can also be called These Books.

THINGS IN THEMSELVES AND THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

    Things excluding time and space are completely divided into the two groups of things in themselves and things appearing as mental phenomena which will be explained below. That is, excluding space and time, there are no remains or overlaps in this division.
    Material things, material functions, bodies, bodily functions, nervous systems, nervous functions, neurons, neurons' excitements and transmissions, molecules, atoms, nuclei, neutrons, protons, electrons, universal gravitation, electrostatic force, magnetic force, and so on can be called "Things in Themselves" or Things Themselves.
    In contrast, sights, sounds, smells, dizziness, tastes, pain, hotness, coldness, palpitation, dyspnea, hunger, thirst, nausea, images, ideas, and so on can be called "Things Appearing as Mental Phenomena," Things Appearing as Phenomena, or Appearing Things. They can also be called "Phenomena" or Mental Phenomena. However, we need to distinguish things appearing on sensations, things appearing as images, things appearing to me, things appearing to you, things which appeared in the past, things which will appear in the future, things appearing to me at present, things appearing to each of us at the then present, and so on. We can distinguish them more easily by using the words of "things appearing" "on -," "as -," "in -," "at -," "to -," or so than by using those of "Phenomena" or so. Therefore they are mainly called "Things Appearing (as Mental Phenomena)" in these books. In order to prevent misunderstanding, it is better to add the words of "as mental phenomena." However, when they are always added, sentences will be complicated like "things appearing as individual images as mental phenomena." Therefore they are not always added in these books.
    Things appearing as mental phenomena consist of things appearing on sensations and things appearing as images. Things appearing on sensations include things appearing on visual sensations and things appearing on auditory sensations. For example, a sight is a thing appearing on a visual sensation, and a sound is a thing appearing on an auditory sensation. Things occurring to me, things which are thought, expected, remembered, and imagined are included in things appearing as images. The details of appearing things will be explained in the chapter "THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA."
    In things appearing (as mental phenomena), the time when none of them exist is nothing, and the time (1) when some of them existed jump over that (2) when none of them existed to that (3) when some of them will exist, and the first time (1) and the third (3) are continuous. For example, if we suddenly fell into a deep sleep or a loss of consciousness and suddenly woke from it, we would feel that the time of the sleep or the loss of consciousness was nothing or a moment. This is not true when that sleep contains dreams or accompanies nocturnal awakening or when that loss of consciousness accompanies gradual decrease and increase.

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL THINGS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

    That a thing has spatial extent or is a point, a line, or a plane can be called the thing's being "Spatial," and that a thing has temporal extent or is a moment can be called the thing's being "Temporal."
    While things excluding space and time are completely divided into things in themselves and things appearing (as mental phenomena), things excluding space and time are completely divided into spatial and temporal things and their properties which will be explained below.
    The things which are spatial and temporal, that is, the things which have spatial extent or are points, lines, or planes and have temporal extent or are moments can be called "Spatial and Temporal Things." For example, material things, bodies, nervous systems, neurons, sights, and sounds are spatial and temporal things.
    Each spatial and temporal thing has some things which are not completely spatial. The things which a spatial and temporal thing has and which are not completely spatial can be called the "Properties" or Attributes of the spatial and temporal thing, the Properties or Attributes which the spatial and temporal thing has, the things which the spatial and temporal thing has as Properties or Attributes, or the Properties or Attributes attributed to the spatial and temporal thing. For example 1, universal gravitation is not completely spatial and is one of the properties which every material thing has. For example 2, a neuron's excitement and transmission is not completely spatial and is one of the properties attributed to every neuron.
    The things which every spatial and temporal thing has as properties can be called the properties or attributes "Attributed to Every" spatial and temporal thing. Every spatial and temporal thing has spatial relative positions, temporal relative positions, qualities, quantities, spatial arrangements, temporal arrangements, and their changes as properties, and so they are properties attributed to every spatial and temporal thing. Moreover, for example, universal gravitation is one of the properties attributed to every material thing, and excitement and transmission is one of the properties attributed to every neuron.
    Spatial positions and temporal positions are all relative. When that relativity do not need to be emphasized, with the word "relative" omitted, spatial relative positions can be called "Spatial Positions," and temporal relative positions are called "Temporal Positions."
    Moreover, most properties of spatial and temporal things have some things which are not completely spatial. For example 1, universal gravitation has direction and quantity, which are not completely spatial. For example 2, excitement and transmission has frequency and duration, which are not completely spatial. The things which a property of a spatial and temporal thing has and which are not completely spatial, too, can be called the Properties of the property, the Properties which the property has, the things which the property has as Properties, or the Properties attributed to the property. For example, universal gravitation has direction and magnitude as properties of the property. Moreover, each of the properties (1) of a spatial and temporal thing often has some properties (2), and each of the properties (2) sometimes have some properties (3), and the same are repeated. Then, (1)(2)(3), or so can be called First Properties, Second Properties, Third Properties, or so of the spatial and temporal things. However, in most cases, the distinction between them is not significant. In the cases that the distinction between them is not significant, all of them can be called the Properties of the spatial and temporal thing, the Properties which the spatial and temporal thing has, or so.
    Things in themselves and things appearing as mental phenomena each consist of their own spatial and temporal things and their properties.

	spatial and temporal things	properties
things in themselves	spatial and temporal things in themselves	properties of spatial and temporal things in themselves
things appearing as mental phenomena	spatial and temporal things appearing as mental phenomena	properties appearing as mental phenomena

    The spatial and temporal things which are included in things in themselves can be called Spatial and Temporal Things in Themselves. Material things, bodies, nervous systems, and neurons are included in spatial and temporal things in themselves.
    The properties of spatial temporal things which are included in things in themselves can be called the Properties of Spatial and Temporal Things in Themselves or Properties in Themselves.
    Every spatial and temporal thing has spatial positions, temporal positions, qualities, quantities, spatial arrangements, temporal arrangements, their changes as properties, and every spatial and temporal thing in itself has them as properties in themselves. They are some of the properties in themselves attributed to every spatial and temporal thing in itself. Moreover, spatial and temporal things in themselves excluding vacuums have mass, universal gravitation, velocity, acceleration, potential energy, kinetic energy, and so on as properties in themselves.
    The spatial and temporal things which are included in things appearing as mental phenomena can be called Spatial and Temporal Things Appearing (as Mental Phenomena). For example, sights, sounds, smells, tastes, pain, hotness, coldness, palpitation, dyspnea, nausea, images, and ideas are appearing spatial and temporal things. It turns out that most of the example enumerated earlier was their example. However, appearing properties, which will explained below, are included in appearing things.
    The properties of spatial temporal things which are included in things appearing as mental phenomena can be called the Properties of Spatial and Temporal Things Appearing (as Mental Phenomena) or Properties Appearing (as Mental Phenomena). Every spatial and temporal thing has spatial positions, temporal positions, qualities, quantities, spatial arrangements, temporal arrangements, and their changes as properties, and every appearing spatial and temporal thing has them as appearing properties. They are appearing properties attributed to every appearing spatial and temporal thing. Moreover, for example, colors as qualities and brightness as a quantity are appearing properties attributed to every spatial and temporal thing appearing on a visual sensation, high-low as a quality and loudness as a quantity are appearing properties attributed to every spatial and temporal thing appearing on an auditory sensation.
    In such ways, not only appearing spatial and temporal things but also their properties appear. For example, colors and brightness appear on a visual sensation, and high-low and loudness appear on an auditory sensation. Simply, we see colors and hear tones. Therefore the words of "appearing properties" will be used more often than those of "properties of appearing spatial and temporal things" from now on.
    The meaning of appearing properties can extend. For example, virtue or vice appearing as complex images, that is, ideas can be appearing properties attributed to human beings appearing as complex images.
    When they are defined in such a way, it turns out that mass, universal gravitation, and so on are not appearing properties but properties in themselves. It is premised that the wavelength of light included in properties in themselves is represented as colors included in appearing properties and that the wavelength of sound wave included in properties in themselves is represented as high-law included in appearing properties.

WHOLES AND PARTS

A spatial and temporal thing has the spatial whole, spatial parts, the temporal whole, and temporal parts. For example, a neuron has its cellular membrane and its contents as the spatial whole and has a neuronal body, a lot of dendrites, and an axon diverging into a lot of small ones at its terminal as spatial parts. Things appearing on a visual sensation have the continuity of sights from awakening to falling asleep as the temporal whole and has that of day sights and that of night ones as temporal parts.
While a spatial and temporal thing has the spatial whole and parts and the temporal whole and parts, a property has the whole and parts of its own which are different from them. The latter are not as clear as the former. For example, an excitement and transmission, which is a property of a neuron, has [1] postsynaptic transmission, [2] excitement, [3] presynaptic transmission, and [4] pause as parts of a property, and they are not as clear as a neuronal body, dendrites, and an axon which are spatial parts of a neuron.

THINGS

There are some recognitions, which will be explained in the chapter "MEMORIES", of some properties or attributes in the beginning of every mental function like recollections of images, perceptions, associations, mental emotions, egos, thinkings, and so on. In addition, some parts of sensations' sources which have some properties are cut and generated as individual images sources for the first time. Therefore animals including human beings can perceive, associate, or think only what already has some properties. Therefore every common noun designates a thing which already has some properties. For example, the word "water" has designated a thing which has being the most clear, being the most fluid, and being tasteless and odorless as properties since before the distinction between solids, liquids, and gases and the discovery of the elements of hydrogen and oxygen. Therefore, including things in themselves, things appearing as mental phenomena, spatial and temporal things, properties, first properties, second properties, and so on, what already have some properties can be called "Things." Things include things in themselves, things appearing as mental phenomena, spatial and temporal things, and properties which have been being explained.

NECESSARY PROPERTIES

    Moreover, everything has some properties without any of which it could not be looked upon that thing in our daily lives and science. For example, a neuron without the ability to excite or transmit could not be looked upon as a neuron. The properties without any of which a thing could not be looked upon as that thing in our daily lives and science can be called the "Necessary Properties" of or for the thing. For example, the necessary properties of a neuron are being a cell, having a neuronal body, a lot of dendrites, and an axon, and having the ability to excite and transmit.
    When a thing's necessary properties are caused, the thing has already been caused, generated, developped, or formed. When a thing's necessary properties continue, the thing continues. That a thing keeps its necessary properties and gets, loses, or changes some other properties is looked upon as the thing's "changing" or being changed. Changing in such a way is included in continuing.
    A thing's losing some of its necessary properties is looked upon as the thing's being "changed into" another thing, being disordered, aging, dying, or so. For example, a neuron's completely losing its ability to excite and transmit is looked upon as its being disordered, aging, or dying.
    When a thing causes some other things, it is directly or indirectly, often indirectly, that it does so. For example, it is directly that plants' photosynthesis causes oxygen. It is indirectly through digestion, absorption, synthesis of protein, and so on that water and food cause animal bodies. However, if the words "directly or indirectly" were always used, sentences would be complicated. Therefore, unless particularly necessary, such words will be omitted in these books.

MATERIAL THINGS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

MATERIAL THINGS

    The spatial and temporal things in themselves which consist of some particles like molecules, ions, atoms, neutrons, protons, electrons, and so on and which they go out of and come into, but which retain their necessary properties can be called "Material Things." Genes, cellular membranes, cells, neurons, nervous systems, bodies, and so on also consist of particles like molecules, ions, and so on. Though they are described as living, having life, or so, they are no more than material things. In addition, though we look upon nervous systems as special things which have mind, spirit, or the like, they are included in bodies and in material things.
    Vacuums are also penetrated by some particles like photons. Vacuums have spatial positions and temporal positions as properties. Also about the properties like mass, universal gravitation, potential energy, kinetic energy, and so on, vacuums can be looked upon as having the mass of zero. In contrast, the space cannot be looked upon as having such properties. Vacuums are different from the space. Therefore vacuums are included in material things in these books. Now that material things include vacuums, they are the same as spatial and temporal things in themselves.
    Material things have not only spatial positions, temporal positions, qualities, quantities, spatial arrangements, temporal arrangements, and their changes but also mass, universal gravitation, velocity, acceleration, potential energy, kinetic energy, and so on as properties. They are the properties attributed to every material thing.

FUNCTIONS

    There are some properties (F) each of which has the following properties of (a) and (b).

(a) The whole or part of each of the properties (F) is caused or changed directly or indirectly by the wholes or parts of some other material things or properties.
(b) The whole or part of each of the properties (F) causes or changes the wholes or parts of some other material things or properties directly or indirectly.

    The properties (F) each of which has the properties of (a) and (b) can be called "Functions."
    Some material things or properties always have some functions. For example, every material thing has universal gravitation as a property, and that universal gravitation is changed by that of all other material things and change that of all other material things. Therefore universal gravitation is a fuction, and every material thing always has it.
    In contrast, some material things or properties do not always have some functions but have the abilities or tendencies to cause or change some functions. For example, every neuron has the ability to excite and transmit as a property. The whole or part of its excitement and transmission are caused directly by the whole of some other neurons' or sensory cells', and the whole of its excitement and transmission causes the wholes or parts of some other neurons', muscle cells' excitement and contraction, or secretory cells' excitement and secretion. Therefore a neuron's excitement and transmission is a function, and every neuron has the ability to cause excitement and transmission.
    The functions which material things, bodies, nervous systems, or so have can be called material functions, bodily functions, nervous functions, or so. Functions and material functions are the same. (Material) functions include bodily functions and nervous functions. Human functions include walking upright on two legs, running alike, doing the crawl, the butterfly, and so on, speaking words, writing words, calculating, playing, studying, working, and interpersonal functions.
    Again, the whole or part of a function is caused or changed directly or indirectly by the wholes or parts of some other material things or properties and causes or changes the wholes or parts of some other material things or properties directly or indirectly. Indirectly in a strict sense, those other material things or properties are endless both retrogradely and anterogradely, and we cannot enumerate all of them. For example 1, what can cause a neuron's excitement and transmission include some other neurons or sensory cells' excitements and transmissions, photons, sound waves, physical or chemical stimuli, and what cause or change them, and so they are endless. In addition what can be caused by a neuron's excitement and transmission include some other neurons' excitements and transmissions, muscle cells' excitements and contractions, secretory cells' excitements and secretions, sensations, memories, voluntary movements, involuntary movements, and what are caused or changed by them, and so they are endless. In our daily lives and science, the self-evident of such endless things are omitted. In addition, the excessively indirect are omitted. Also in these books, they have been omitted and will be omitted. For example, when neurons' excitements and transmissions are explained, the supply of oxygen and glucose is omitted as self-evident.
    As was explained earlier, every property has the whole and parts of its own, and functions are included in properties. Therefore every function has the whole and parts of its own. For example, a neuron's excitement and transmission has postsynaptic transmission, exceeding of threshold, excitement, presynaptic transmission, and pause as parts of a function.

NEURONS' EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS

    Nervous systems are not composed only of neurons. They are composed of neurons, neuroglial cells supporting them, their own immune cells, various membranes, cerebrospinal fluid, and so on. Neurons can exist and function by their support in a broad sense, above all, neuroglial cells'. All the same, the most important for mental functions are neurons' excitements and transmissions.
    A neuron consists spatially of a neuronal body, a lot of dendrites, and an axon diverging into a lot of small ones at its terminal.
    Sensory cells include not only sensory cells in a narrow sense in skins, bones, striated muscles, mucous membranes, and so on but also visual cells, auditory cells, taste cells, and so on in these books. Metaphorically, the first runners of sensations are sensory cells.
    Muscle cells include striated muscle cells, smooth muscle cells, and cardiac muscle cells. Secretory cells include endocrine cells and exocrine cells.
    A neuron stretches an "Axon" long, the axon diverges one after another into a lot of small ones, and many "Axonal Terminals" come closest to a lot of parts of the cellular membranes of some other neurons, muscle cells, or secretory cells. In this way, one axon diverges one after another into a lot of small ones, and so one neuron comes close to not always one but sometimes more than one neuron, muscle cell, or secretory cell.
    Though a sensory cell does not have such long processes as a neuron has as an axon, a sensory cell stretches some processes, such processes diverge into a lot of small ones, and many terminals come closest to a lot of parts of the cellular membranes of some neurons. Such a process of a sensory cell is also called an Axon, and such terminals are also called Axonal Terminals, in the same way as a neuron's are, in these books.
    When a neuron or a sensory cell (A) stretches its axon, when its axon diverges one after another, and when one (a) of the axonal terminals comes closest to one (b) of the parts of the cellular membrane of another neuron or a muscle cell or a secretory cell (B), a, b, and the cleft between them can be called a "Synapse" between A and B, and the cleft can be called a "Synaptic Cleft" between A and B. By the way, synaptic clefts are not full of air but full of intercellular fluid. Of course, the inner part of a cell is full of intracellular fluid.
    In each of such synapses, when many neurotransmitters are released from a to the synaptic cleft, they bind with a lot of receptors on b.
    In such ways, (1) a neuron or a sensory cell comes close to (2) some other neurons, muscle cells, or secretory cells and forms a lot of synapses. This can be called (1)'s "Joining" to (2). In addition, (1') a neuron, a muscle cell, or a secretory cell has (2') some other neurons or sensory cells come close to itself and has them form a lot of synapses. This can be called (1)'s "Being Joined" to by (2'). After all, a neuron is joined to by some other neurons or sensory cells, and joins to some other neurons, muscle cells, or secretory cells.
    Some other neurons or sensory cells by which a neuron is joined to can be called the neuron's "Directly Preceding Cells," and some other neurons, muscle cells, or secretory cells which a neuron join to can be called the neuron's "Directly following Cells." After all, a neuron is joined to by some directly preceding cells, and joins to some directly following cells. In such a way, one neuron is joined to by not always one but sometimes more than one directly preceding cell and joins to not always one but sometimes more than one directly following cell.
    The above is so when a neuron is made a center. In contrast, the following is so when a synapse is made a center.
    In each synapse, the cell whose axonal terminal release neurotransmitters can be called the "Presynaptic" Cell, and their material things, functions, or the like can be called Presynaptic Material Things, Presynaptic Functions, or the like, and the cell whose receptors the neurotransmitters bind with can be called the "Postsynaptic" Cell, and their material things, functions, or the like can be called "Postsynaptic" Material Things, Postsynaptic Functions, or the like.
    In every cell including a neuron, almost constantly, with its cellular membrane made a border, and with extracellular part made a reference point, the electrical potential where the intracellular part is negative is formed.
    Each neuron (N) has the following function.

[1] Postsynaptic Transmission
    In each of a lot of synapses between N and some of N's directly preceding cells, many neurotransmitters are released from the axonal terminal of the presynaptic cell into the synaptic cleft, they bind with the receptors on N's membrane, and N's electrical potentials of intracellular part change. In N, such many changes of electrical potential are summed including subtraction. This can be called N's "Postsynaptic Transmission" from some of N's directly preceding cells or N's "Being Transmitted" to by some of N's directly preceding cells.

[1-1] Exceeding of the Threshold
    Some sums of N's intracellular potentials change in the positive direction and exceed a certain threshold. This can be called N's "Exceeding of the Threshold" or Exceeding the Threshold.

[1-2] Misfire
    Not a sum of the potentials exceeds the threshold. This can be called (N)'s "Misfire" or Misfiring.

[2] Excitement
    When the exceeding of the threshold [1-1] in [1] is caused even in one part of N's membrane, the potentials' changes exceeding the threshold spread around the membrane of N including its axon as if they burst. This can be called N's "Excitement," Exciting, or being Excited.
    N's excitement's spreading through N's axon is specially called N's "Conduction." Conductions are included in excitements in these books.

[3] Presynaptic Transmission
    The potentials' changes exceeding the threshold reach the axonal terminals of N, and the neurotransmitters are released from the axonal terminals into the synaptic clefts between N and its directly following cells. This can be called N's "Presynaptic Transmission" or "Transmitting" to its directly following cells.
(Moreover, [1]-[4] can be caused in each of N's directly following cells, and the same can be repeated.)

[4] Pause
    Only for milliseconds (several thousandths of a second), N is not able to excite. That can be called N's "Pause" or "Pausing." Thereafter N can excite and repeat [1]-[4]. Therefore N can repeat [1]-[4] at the frequency of tens or hundreds times a second.

    The above [1-1][2][3][4] can be called N's "Excitement and Transmission" or "Exciting and Transmitting."
    Let the directly preceding cells of a neuron (N) be A, B,… and let its directly following cells be X, Y,…. A, B,…'s [3]s and N's [1] can be called the transmission from A, B,… to N or A, B,…'s transmitting to N. N's [3] and X, Y,…'s [1]s can be called the transmission from N to X, Y,… or N's transmitting to X, Y,…. Even if A, B,… transmit to N, N does not always excite and transmit. When N's [1] end up with misfire [1-2], N does not excite or transmit. In contrast, when not [1-2] but exceeding of threshold [1-1] is caused, N excites and transmits unless something unusual happen like its axon is cut and like its neurotransmitters are depleted.
    A sensory cell is excited by some photons, sound waves, physical and chemical stimuli, and so on and transmits in the same way as a neuron does. This can be called a Sensory Cell's Excitement and Transmission or Exciting and Transmitting.
    A muscle cell excites in the same way as a neuron does by being transmitted to by some neurons and contracts. This can be called the Muscle Cell's Excitement and Contraction or Exciting and Contracting.
    A secretory cell excites in the same way as a neuron does by being transmitted to by some neurons and secretes. This can be called the Secretory Cell's Excitement and Secretion or Exciting and Secreting.
    When the properties or attributes which are common to all of them are explained, neurons, sensory cells, muscle cells, and secretory cells are explained as neurons, and neurons' excitements and transmissions, sensory cells' excitements and transmissions, muscle cells' excitements and contractions, and secretory cells' excitements and secretions are explained as neurons' excitements and transmissions in these books.
    In addition, the words of "excitement and transmission," "transmission," and so on designate a concrete and countable function which each neuron or neuronal group has. For example, if there are a hundred neurons, there can be a hundred or less of excitements and transmissions at once. Therefore those words are used as countable nouns in these books.
    After all, a neuron can be transmitted to by not always one but sometimes more than one directly preceding cell and can transmit to not always one but sometimes more than one directly following cell.
    The whole of [1-1][2][3][4] or the part of [1-2] of a neuron's excitement and transmission is caused by the wholes of [1-1][2][3][4] of some of its directly preceding cells' excitements and transmissions, and the whole of [1-1][2][3][4] of a neuron's excitement and transmission causes the wholes of [1-1][2][3][4] or parts of [1-2] of its directly following cells' excitements and transmissions. Therefore neurons' excitements and transmissions are functions.
    A neuron's excitement and transmission as a function has each of [1-1][1-2][2][3][4] as a part of a function.
    Like a neuron either excites and transmits or ends up with misfire, some functions have more than one choice. Rather, most functions of animals, which are complex, usually have more than one choice. For example, animals' escaping functions have various choices of running away at once, hiding at once, hiding after running away for a while, and so on.
    In some functions, only a part is sometimes caused like a neuron sometimes ends up with misfire [1-2]. In addition, it is probable that none of the other material things or functions, which the whole could cause, are caused only by a part's being caused. For example, in neurons' excitements and transmissions, none of the wholes or parts of directly following cells' excitements and transmissions are caused only by misfires' being caused.
    Not only the whole of [1-1][2][3][4] but also, at least, each part like [2][3] is a function. That is because, [2] is caused by [1-1], [2] causes [3], and [3] causes [1-1] or [1-2] of its directly following cells. In such a way, in some functions, some of their parts are functions, too.
    When the exceeding of the threshold [1-1] is caused, the following [2][3][4] are caused, and the whole of the excitement and transmission is caused. Even if a neuron is transmitted to by some of its directly following cells, when [1-1] is not caused, the following parts are not caused, the whole is not caused, and it ends up with misfire [1-2]. If its axon should be cut or if its neurotransmitters should be depleted, its presynaptic transmission [3] would not be caused even if [1-1] is caused. However, the cells which do not have any abilities to transmit in such a way do not satisfy the necessary properties of neurons and can no longer be looked upon as neurons.

SHORT-TERM REPETITION OF EXCITEMENT AND TRANSMISSION

The [1-1][2][3][4] which has been explained is one excitement and transmission continuing for milliseconds (thousandths of a second). This can be called a neuron's "One (Super-short-term) Excitement and Transmission" or a neuron's Exciting and Transmitting Once (for Super-short time). Practically, once it is caused, it is repeated at a certain frequency of tens or hundreds times a second continually for seconds. Such a repetition can be called a neuron's "Short-term (Continual) Repetition" of Excitement and Transmission or Repeating Excitement and Transmission (Continually) for a Short Time. However, almost every neuron either does such repetition or, from the beginning, does not excite and transmit anyway. Therefore such repetition can also be called a neuron's Excitement and Transmission or Exciting and Transmitting, and the words of excitement and transmission usually designate such a short-term continual repetition in these books. Short-term continual repetition need to be clearly distinguished from long-term intermittent repetition as will be defined later.

NECESSARY FUNCTIONS, OBJECTS, AND SO ON

    As was defined earlier, the properties without which a thing could not be looked upon as that thing can be called the Necessary Properties of or for the thing. For example, the ability to excite and transmit is one of the necessary properties of neurons, and so a cell without that ability could not be looked upon as a neuron. A neuron has the ability to excite and transmit as a necessary property.
    Now, the functions which or whose tendencies or abilities a material thing has as necessary properties can be called the Necessary Functions of or for the material thing, the Necessary Functions which the material thing has, or the Necessary Functions attributed to the material thing. For example, a neuron has its excitement and transmission as a necessary function.
    Moreover, functions also have their properties and their necessary properties. By definition, functions have the following necessary property:

the whole or part of a function is caused or changed by the wholes or parts of some other material things or properties (1) and causes or changes the wholes or parts of some other material things or properties (2).

    Moreover, some of (1) or (2) are sometimes involved in some of the function's necessary properties. For example 1, a neuron's excitement and transmission whose whole does not cause the post-synaptic transmissions of any striated muscle cells cannot be called the excitement and transmission of a neuron of a motor nerve. When some of (1) are involved in some of the necessary properties of the function, those of (1) can be called the function's Necessary Causes, and when some of (2) are involved in some of the necessary properties of the function, those of (2) can be called the function's Necessary Objects or Effects.
    Moreover, in a function, there is a part which is essential for the wholes or parts of its necessary objects to be caused or changed and which causes necessary objects the least indirectly in it. Such a part can be called the function's "Necessary and Direct Part." For example, if a neuron's [3] presynaptic transmission is not caused, none of its directly following cells' excitements and transmissions, some of which are its necessary objects, are caused. In addition, it causes them the least indirectly in a neuron's excitement and transmission. Therefore presynaptic transmissions [3] are the necessary and direct part of neurons' excitements and transmissions.

DECISIVE PARTS OF FUNCTIONS

However, when a certain part of a function is caused or changed, its necessary and direct part is also caused or changed, and the wholes or parts of its necessary objects are caused or changed. For example, in a neuron's excitement and transmission, when its exceeding of the threshold [1-1] is caused, its presynaptic transmission [3] is also caused, and the wholes or parts of its directly following cells' excitements and transmissions, some of which are its necessary objects, are caused. Such a part can be called the function's "Decisive" part. For example, in a neuron's excitement and transmission, the exceeding of the threshold [1-1] is its decisive part, and presynaptic transmission [3] is its necessary and direct part. Like this example, they are not always the same. In contrast, it is probable that a function's decisive part, necessary and direct part, and whole are the same. For example, it is true of universal gravitation.

FUNCTIONS' FUNCTIONING

In a function, that none of its necessary and direct part is caused or changed, practically that none of its decisive part is caused or changed, and as a result that none of the whole or part of its necessary objects are caused or changed cannot be called the function's functioning. For example, in a neuron's excitement and transmission, that its presynaptic transmission [3] is not caused, practically that its exceeding of the threshold [1-1] is not caused, and as a result that none of its directly following cells' excitements and transmissions, some of which are its necessary objects, are caused cannot called the neuron's excitement and transmission's functioning. Therefore that the necessary and direct part of a function is caused or changed, practically that its decisive part is caused or changed, and as a result that the wholes or parts of its necessary objects are caused or changed can be called the function's "Functioning to" its necessary objects. For example, in a neuron's excitement and transmission, that its presynaptic transmission [3] is caused, practically that its exceeding of threshold [1-1] is caused, and as a result that the wholes or parts (their postsynaptic transmissions) of its directly following cells' excitements and transmissions, some of which are its necessary objects, are caused can be called the neuron's excitement and transmission's functioning to its necessary objects. In addition, when the necessary objects are self-evident, a function's functioning to its necessary objects can be called the function's Functioning. In addition, a function's functioning can also be called the function's Being Caused. That is, the words of a function's being caused and those of its functioning mean the same thing. In addition, when the material thing (1) which a function is attributed to is self-evident and when the material things (2) which its necessary objects is attributed to is self-evident, the function's functioning to its necessary objects can be called the material thing (1)'s Functioning to the material things (2). For example, the excitement and transmission of a neuron of a motor nerve's functioning to the excitement and contraction of a striated muscle cell can be called that neuron's functioning to that striated muscle cell.

FUNCTIONS' TIMELY FUNCTIONING

In living things, above all, in animals, a function functions timely when the wholes or parts of its necessary causes are timely caused or changed. We are relieved by such timeliness. For example, if the neurons directly following sensory cells excited and transmitted without being transmitted to by them, sensations would be chaotic and we would feel pain without any stimulation or inflammation. When such timeliness needs to be emphasized, functions' functioning is called their "Timely" Functioning in these books. Above all, it is significant for neurons' excitements and transmissions. However, if the modifier "timely" were always used, sentences would be complicated. Therefore it is ommited with functions' timely functioning looked upon as self-evident when living things and their functions are explained.

MATERIAL THINGS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

    Things in themselves excluding space and time are either spatial and temporal things in themselves, their properties, their properties' properties, and so forth, and those properties are either functions or properties other than functions. The words like material things, matter, substances, living things, animals, and human beings are vague on whether or not they mean not only those spatial and temporal things in themselves but also those properties or functions. In these books, those words means the latter, too. Moreover, when it is necessary to emphasize that those words means functions, too, the words like a Material Thing and its Material Functions, a Material Thing and its Functions, a Living Thing and its Living Functions, a Living Thing and its Function, or so will be used in these books.
    Once the meanings of those words are defined so and after the vacuum was included in material things as was in one of the above chapters, the words "material things and their functions" or "material things" designate all things in themselves excluding space and time.
    The words like a material thing's "existing" or a material thing and its functions' existing are vague on whether or not they also means those functions' (timely) functioning. In these books, those words means it, too. Moreover, when it is necessary to emphasize that they means it, too, the words like a material thing and its functions' "Existing and Functioning", the material thing's Existing and Functioning, or so will be used in these books.
    However, when those words are always used, sentences will be complicated. Therefore the words like a Material Thing's Existing, an Animal's Living, or so will usually be used in these books.
    By the way, it sometimes happens that a function is recognized, and thereafter that the material thing which it is attributed to is confirmed. For example, in the history of biology, after the functions of heredity and evolution were found, the substance of genes was made clear. In such a case, the words of a property, a function, a property including function, a material thing and its functions or the like cannot help being used.

POSSIBILITIES

The possibility of a thing's existing or functioning or being caused or changed can be called the Possibility of the thing.
The possibility of a thing involves the possibilities of some other things. For example, the possibility of a neuron's exciting and transmitting involves that of some directly preceding cells' exciting and transmitting, the supply of oxygen, glucose, and so on. From the beginning, the possibilities of all the things that living things including human beings have involves the possibilities of the sun, the earth, the food chain from microorganisms to plants to smaller animals, and so on.

SITUATIONS AND THE NATURE

    Living things, living functions, animals, animal functions, individuals, individual functions, human beings, human functions, and so on will be defined later. Before they are defined, their situations and nature will be defined.
    As was explained above, the possibility of some things invlove the possibilities of some other things. Those other things can be called the "Situation" or the "Nature" of or for the things. In addition, the situation of some things without which they could not exist or function can be called the " (Necessary) Situation" or the "Nature" of or for the things. For example, the sun, the earth, sunlight, oxygen, carbon dioxide, the photosynthesis by plants, the food chain from microorganisms and plants to some other animals, and so on are the nature for a species of animals. The nature of some living things involves some other living things. For example, the nature for human beings involves some other animals, plants, microorganisms. In addition, the nature for some individuals of a species of living things involves some other individuals of the same species. For example, the nature for a human individual involves some other human beings and their interpersonal functions. It may be unnatural that such a thing as contains some other human beings and human functions is called his or her nature. When the word of "nature" is unnatural, the nature for some things can be called the (Necessary) Situation of or for them.
    It is impossible to enumerate all the material things and their functions involved in the nature or a situation for something. For example, when we enumerate the necessary situation of a neuron's excitement and transmission, it contains some of its directly preceding cells' excitements and transmissions, the supply of oxygen, glucose, and so on, the palpitation of the heart, the respiration, the digestion and absorption of food, the chain of food, and so on, and they are endless. This is the same as the material things and their functions causing or changing the whole or part of a function are endless, which has already been explained. In our daily lives and science, out of them, those which are self-evident and too indirect are omitted. These books, too, have omitted and will omit them.

TENDENCIES AND ABILITIES

    The possibility of a thing involves the possibilities of some other things. In contrast, the part of the possibility inside a thing can be called the thing's Own Possibility. Out of things' own possibilities, tendencies and abilities, which will be explained below, are significant. Anyway, the tendency or ability of a thing is one of its own properties, and does not involve the possibilities, tendencies or abilities of any other things.
    When a thing is caused against some resistances including direct or indirect competitions, its own possibility to be caused or changed against those resistances can be called its "Tendency" to be caused or changed. For example, when a lot of excitements and transmissions of neuronal groups are caused in a converging neuronal groups which will be explained later, those exciting and transmitting the earliest, the most continuously, at the highest density, the most widely, and the closest to the center go through, while making the others disappear, and reach the destination. Such earliness, continuity, density, width, and closeness to the center of a neuronal group's excitement and transmission are its tendency to be caused in a converging neuronal group.
    In contrast, some of things' own possibilities can be increased and formed and increased almost independently of such resistances. For example, general neurons' own possibilities to excite and transmit are increased and formed by long-term intermittent repetition, which will be explained later. When a thing's own possibility is increased and formed almost independently of resistances, that possibility can be called its "Ability" to be caused or changed, its Capability of being caused or changed, or Activity. For example, a neuron's ability (activity) to excite and transmit is having a lot of active receptors on the cellular membrane, stretching its axon long and forming a lot of synapses, releasing a lot of active neurotransmitters from its axonal terminals, and so on. As will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS," tendencies matter in limited egos, and abilities matter in intentional functions.
    When the only necessary function of a material thing is self-evident, the tendency or ability of that function can be called the Tendency or Ability of that material thing. For example, because it is self-evident that the only necessary function of a neuron is its excitement and transmission, the ability or activity of the neuron's excitement and transmission can be called the neuron's ability or activity. The abilities which is particular to human beings include the ability to walk upright on two legs, to run alike, to do the crawl, the butterfly, and so on, to speak words, to write words, to calculate, to play, to study, to work, and so on.
    The increase of the ability or activity of a thing can be called the "Activation" of the thing or the thing's being Activated.

ACTIVITIES OF NEURONS

The activity (ability) of a neuron('s excitement and transmission) is having a lot of active receptors on the cellular membrane, stretching its axon long and forming a lot of synapses, releasing a lot of active neurotransmitters from its axonal terminals, and so on. In this way, not only neurons but also neurotransmitters and receptors have their activities. Their activities are the abilities to change the extra-intracellular voltage when they are bound.
A neuron's activity is decreased temporarily for seconds by the short-term continual repetition which was explained earlier, that is, simply, excitement and transmission. However, the activity is increased by the short-term continuous repetition's being repeated intermittently in the long time from seconds to years. In contrast, the activity is decreased without such repetition. This is the substance of the importance of repetition in learning and training which is experienced in our daily lives and science. Such a long-term intermittent repetition of short-term continuous repetition can be called a neuron's excitement and transmission's "Long-Term Intermittent Repetition" or Being Repeated Intermittently in a Long Time. A neuron's activity is increased by such repetition and is decreased by little or no such repetition. Mainly, such repetition increases the tendencies of recollections of images, which will be explained later in this book, and the abilities of intentional functions and the tendencies of limited egos, which will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS."

PROMOTIONS⇔RESTRAINTS

    The words of "excitement and transmission," "transmission," "activity," and "activation" explained earlier, "promotion" and "restraint" which will be explained below, and so on designate concrete and countable things which each neuron, neuronal group, or the like has. For example, for a neuron, if there are ten directly preceding cells, there can be ten or less promotions or restraints, and when the sum of the voltages caused by them exceeds a certain threshold, the neuron excites and transmits. Therefore they are used as countable nouns in these books.
    By a function (P)'s functioning to another function (Q), when the possibility of the function (Q)'s functioning gets larger, the function (P) can be called the "Promotion," Prompt, Promoting Function, or Prompting Function for the function (Q) or P's Promoting or Prompting Q.
    In contrast to promotions, by a function (R)'s functioning another function (S), when the possibility of the function (S)'s functioning gets smaller, the function (R) can be called the "Restraint" or Restraining Function on the function (S) or R's Restraining S.
    Though it is the promoting transmissions and restraining transmissions of neurons that are typical of promotions and restraints, they can be found in interpersonal relations and the society. For example 1, violence often restrain some individuals' functions. That is a kind of violation of liberal rights. However, by restraining the violence which restrains some individuals' functions, some kinds of power can prevent them from being restrained. That is a kind of protection of liberal rights. For example 2, some kinds of power can promote human existence and functions by supplying water and food, medicine, information, and so on. That is a kind of security of social rights. In addition, they can be found in the amimal bodies outside nervous systems. For example, when a group of endocrine secretory cells secretes a kind of hormone exceedingly, another group secretes another kind of hormone which restrains their secretion. That is a part of homeostasis. Also in each nervous system, there are promoting transmissions and restraining ones, as will be explained below.
    Now in a nervous system, when a neuron's transmission (P) promotes its directly following cells' excitements and transmissions by reducing extra-intracellular voltage and by facilitating exceeding of the threshold, PT can be called the Promoting Transmission, Promotion, Prompting Transmission, or Prompt for its directly following cells or P's Promoting or Prompting its directly following cells.
    In contrast to promoting transmissions, when a neuron's transmission (RT) restrains its directly following cells' excitements and transmissions by increasing extra-intracellular voltage and by making exceeding of the threshold more difficult, RT can be called the Restraining Transmission or Restraint on its directly following cells or the neuron's Restraining its directly following cells.
    Each of some neurons is joined to by more than one directly preceding cell and gets a mixture of promoting and restraining transmissions. Usually in such a case, when it has got more promoting ones, it excites and transmits, and when it has got more restraining ones, it does not. However, more strictly, the sum of the voltages caused by them is the question.
    The restraints in nervous systems are important for rest and sleep and the reduction of pain and anxiety or fear. Simply, we cannot sleep or rest without restraints.

FUNCTIONS' STOPS

    In contrast to a function's functioning, a function's not functioning, that is, its necessary and direct part's not being caused or changed, practically its decisive part's not being caused or changed can be called the function or the material thing (which has the function as a necessary function)'s "Stop" or Stopping. A function's stop includes that its necessary and direct part and decisive part are not caused and that some other parts are caused. Of course, it includes that no parts are caused. For example, a neuron's stop includes that its postsynaptic transmission [1] is caused but that its presynaptic transmission [3] is not caused, that is, that its misfire [1-2] is caused. Of course, it include that even its misfire [1-2] is not caused.
    Functions' stops, above all, neurons' stops are very important for mental functions. As will be explained in the chapters below, because some series of neurons actually joining in a neuronal group excite and transmit and because the others stop, it is premised that the shade of light, sound, pain, and the like appear. If all the neurons in a neuronal group either excited and transmitted or stopped, sights would be completely white or black in all the visual field, sounds would be piercingly loud or deadly silent, and the pain would be terribly severe or boringly senseless in all the body including the skins, bones, striated muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints. So that their shades can appear, some neurons need to excite and transmit at high density and others at low density. From the beginning, so that density can exist, some series of neurons actually joining in a neuronal group need to excite and transmit, and the others need to stop. From the beginning, in order for us to rest or sleep, not a few neurons in our nervous systems need to stop.
    In such a way, most of functions' stops can be looked upon as functions. Functions' stops which are looked upon as functions are included in functions in these books.
    Promotions and restraints are functions changing functions and so are included in functions. That a function promotes or restrains another function and as a result that the latter is caused or not caused is included in the former causing or stopping the latter respectively. For example, that a neuron releasing the neurotransmitters of GABA restrains its directly following cells and that the latter stop is included in the former's stopping the latter. Such being caused or not being caused is included in functions.
    In human relations and the human society, it might be better that such stopping is called "Deterring." For example, there are some "deterrence theories."

FUNCTIONS' AROUSALS

    That a part (P) of a function which can cause or change its decisive part (DP) is caused or changed can be called the function's "Arousal" or Arising. A function's arousal includes that P is caused or changed but that DP is not caused or changed. Simply, it is probable that a function does not function and is not caused and does stop even if it arises. A function's arising does not always mean its functioning or being caused. For example, that a neuron's postsynaptic transmission [1] is caused is its excitement and transmission's arising. Even if [1] is caused, when the misfire [1-2] is caused and when the exceeding of the threshold [1-1] is not caused, presynaptic [3] transmission is not caused, and the neuron does not excite or transmit and does stop. This is the neuron's (excitement and transmission's) arising and, simultaneously, stopping.
    The following is the most important example of arousals. As will be explained later, though a lot of images' sources usually arise, a limited number (n) of them are recollected. This is the substance of our daily thought that we cannot think of two or more things at once.
    The following is the case as far as neurons' excitements and transmissions and some other living functions are concerned. If no pause [4] was caused and if the presynaptic transmission [3] was caused, the neuron could transmit to and function to its directly following cells. However, it is impossible for [1-1][2][3] to be caused and for [4] not to be caused. Though, by definition, it is a neuron's functioning that presynaptic transmission [3] which is a necessary and direct part is caused, it is a neuron's functioning, practically, that the exceeding of the threshold [1-1] which is a decisive part is caused, and, more practically, that the whole of [1-1][2][3][4] is caused.

COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE STOPS

In contrast to a function's arising, a function's not even arising can be called the function's "Complete" Stop or Completely Stopping. In contrast to a function's complete stop, a function's arising and not functioning can be called the function's "Incomplete" Stop or Stopping Incompletely.
Though the word of "incomplete" may make a bad impression, each of us need to stop functions falling into a vicious circle, which will be explained in "FACING TENDENCIES FALLING INTO A VICIOUS CIRCLE―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING HABITS," not completely but incompletely in the first stage in order to decrease the tendencies falling into a vicious circle.

LIVING THINGS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

    The material things which have the property (1) of synthesizing some macromolecules like proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids, that (2) of consisting of them, and that (3) of reproducing some material things which have the same necessary properties as they have can be called "Living Things." For example, a gene has the property (1) of synthesizing proteins and nucleic acid, that (2) of consisting of them, and that (3) of replicating itself, and is not only an important part of a larger living thing but also itself a living thing. Living things include genes, cells, individuals, and so on.
    The functions which living things have can be called Living Functions. Living functions include biogenesis, reproduction, growth, aging, death, grouping, spontaneous mutation, and evolution.
    Living thing and their properties, their properties' properties, and so forth including functions can be called "Living Things and Their Living Functions," Living Things and Their Functions, or Living Things. A living thing and its functions' existing and functioning can be called its "Living" or "Life." A living thing and its functions' coming to exist and function can be called its "Being Borne" or "Birth," and its coming not to exist or function can be called its "Dying" or "Death." For example, not only individuals but also cells which compose individuals are dying sooner or later.
    Living things are included in material things, and living functions in material functions. However, material things excluding living things can also be called Material things, and material functions excluding living functions can also be called Material Functions.

INDIVIDUALS

There are some living things which can be living things when they are spatially separated from the other living things. The living things which can be living things when they are spatially separated from the other living things can be called "Individuals." Most animals like insects, fishes, birds, horses, cows, dogs, cats, monkeys, human beings, and so on which are found in our daily lives are individuals.

BODIES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

    There are some individuals whose functions of sensations or recollections of images are premised to cause some things appearing as mental phenomena and which have motor functions. Such individuals can be called "Bodies" or "Animals." For example, it is premised that the neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions from the retinae to optic nerves to visual areas on occipital lobes cause things appearing on a visual sensation. In addition, a neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions from frontal lobes via spinal cords to motor nerves and striated muscles' contraction cause voluntary movements. An individual having such functions is a body or an animal of vertebrates.
    The functions which bodies have can be called Bodily Functions, Animal Functions, or Physical Functions. Bodily functions include expansion and contraction of hearts, blood vessels, and lungs, neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions, muscular groups' excitements and contractions, secretory groups' excitements and secretions, involuntary movements, voluntary movements, sensations, and memories.
    Bodies and their properties, their properties' properties, and so on including functions can be called "Bodies and their Bodily Functions," Bodies and their Functions, or Bodies, Animals and Their Animal Functions, Animals and Their Functions, or Animals.

ANIMALS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Bodies can be called "Animals," Animal Bodies, or Animal Individuals, too, and bodily functions can be called Animal functions, too. However, in our daily lives, the word of bodies is used for the contrast with minds or spirits and does not imply such things or things appearing as mental phenomena. In contrast, the word of animals and the words of human beings can imply them. Therefore bodies and their functions and the things appearing as mental phenomena which some parts of them are premised to cause can be called Animals and their Animal Functions, Animals and their Functions, or Animals. That is, the words of animals and their functions are different from that of bodies and their functions in that the former sometimes implies things appearing as mental phenomena.

HUMAN BEINGS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

    The animals which belong to the species of "Homo sapience" can be called "Human Beings," the functions which human beings has can be called "Human Functions," and human beings and their properties, their properties' properties, and so forth including functions can be called "Human Beings and their Human Functions," Human Beings and Their Functions, or Human Beings. Moreover, for the same reason explained in the above section, human beings and their functions and the things appearing as mental phenomena which some parts of them are premised to cause can be called Human Beings and Their Human Function, Human Beings and Their Functions, Human Beings, Human Individuals, Individuals, Individual Persons, Persons, or Each of Us.
    Human functions include not only the bodily functions enumerated earlier but also walking upright on two legs, running alike, doing the crawl, butterfly, and so on, speaking words, writing words, calculating, playing, studying, working, and interpersonal functions.
    Material things include living things, living things include bodies ( = animals), and bodies include human beings. Material functions include living functions, living functions include bodily functions ( = animal functions), and bodily functions include human functions. Material things and their functions include living things and their functions, living things and their functions include bodies and their functions ( = animals and their functions), bodies and their functions include human beings and their functions.

NEURONAL GROUPS' EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS

NERVOUS SYSTEMS

An organ which consists of neurons and sensory cells and neuroglial cell, cerebrospinal fluid, dura maters, pia maters, arachnoid membranes, and so on which support neurons can be called a "Nervous System" or Neuronal System. Not only central nervous systems but also peripheral ones and autonomic ones are included in nervous systems. Moreover, sensory cells, sensory group, and sensory organs in a narrow sense like eyeballs, inner and middle ears are included in nervous systems in these books. Though skins, tongues, and so on where sensory cells are densely distributed may be sensory organs in a broad sense, out of them, only sensory cells and the neurons which follow them are included in nervous systems in these books.
The following can be called "Neuronal Groups."

UNITARY NEURONAL GROUPS

A group of neurons where neuronal bodies assemble into what is called a nucleus or ganglion and where the axons bunch into what is called a nerve can be called a "Unitary Neuronal Group."
Each neuron in a unitary neuronal group is joined to by some neurons in some other unitary neuronal groups. This can be called a unitary neuronal group's Being Joined to by some other neuronal groups. Each neuron in a unitary neuronal group joins to some other neurons in some other unitary neuronal groups. This can be called a unitary neuronal group's Joining to some other neuronal groups.

SENSORY GROUPS

    A group of sensory cells can be called a "Sensory Group."
    Though a sensory cell does not have such a long process as a neuron has as an axon, it joins to some neurons with some processes having the same functions as an axon has and has an ability to transmit to them in the same way as a neuron does. In addition, a sensory group joins to some unitary neuronal group in the same way as a unitary neuronal group does. Such sensory cells are included in neurons, and such sensory groups are included in unitary neuronal groups in these books.
    However, not a sensory group is joined to or transmitted to by any neuronal groups. Sensory groups are made to excite and transmit by such stimuli from the outside of nervous systems as photons, sound waves, pressure, heat, and so on. Such stimuli are the only input into nervous systems. A sensory group is metaphorically a first runner in a complex neuronal group which will be explained in the following sections.
    In taste sensations, olfactory sensations, somatic sensations, and autonomic sensations, their sensory cells do not gather orderly into their sensory organs in a narrow sense but diffuse randomly into general organs or tissues like tongues, nasal cavities, skins, and mucus membranes. However, the sensory cells diffusing in such a way are called a Sensory Group in these books. In addition, the general organs or tissues where sensory cells diffuse in such a way are sometimes called Sensory Organs (in a Broad Sense) in these books.

COMPLEX NEURONAL GROUPS

Linear neuronal groups, neuronal ways, diverging neuronal groups, converging neuronal groups, and paired neuronal groups which will be explained below, and the mixtures of some of them can be called "Complex Neuronal Groups."

LINEAR NEURONAL GROUPS

When each neuron in a unitary neuronal group [A] joins to a neuron in another unitary neuronal group [B], when each neuron in [B] joins to a neuron in another unitary neuronal group [C], and when the same are repeated, [A][B][C]… can be called a "Linear Neuronal Group."

NEURONAL WAYS

When a unitary or complex neuronal group or sensory neuronal group [A] joins to another unitary neuronal group [B], [B] joins to another unitary neuronal group [C], [C] joins to another unitary or complex neuronal group, a muscle group, or a secretory group [D], when [A][D] have some clear functions like sensations, memories, and movements, secretion, and when [B][C] do not have any clear functions other than excitements and transmissions, [B][C] can be called the "Neuronal Way" from [A] to [D].

DIVERGING NEURONAL GROUPS

When each neuron in a unitary neuronal group [A] joins to some neurons in some neuronal groups [B][B'], when each neuron in each of [B][B'] joins to some neurons in some unitary neuronal groups [C][C'][C''][C'''], and when the same are repeated, [A][B][B'][C][C'][C''][C''']… can be called a "Diverging" Neuronal Group. In addition, neuronal groups diverging wildly can be called Diffusing ones.
For example, the neuronal group which individual images' sources which are being generated go through, which will be explained in the chapter "MEMORIES," is a diverging neuronal group, and the neuronal group which impulses go through, which will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS," is a diffusing neuronal group.

CONVERGING NEURONAL GROUPS

When each neuron in a unitary neuronal group [Z] is joined to by some neurons in some unitary neuronal groups [Y][Y'], when each neuron in each of [Y][Y'] are joined to by some neurons in some unitary neuronal groups [X][X'][X''][X'''], and when the same are repeated, [Z][Y][Y'][X][X'][X''][X''']… can be called a "Converging" Neuronal Group.
For example, the neuronal group from the unitary neuronal groups which store individual images' sources to the neuronal group which replay sources, which will be explained in the chapter "MEMORIES," is a converging neuronal group. Therefore, though a lot of individual images' sources arise, a limited number or less of them are recollected.

PAIRS OF NEURONAL GROUPS

In most nervous systems, there are some pairs of neuronal groups, and the two neuronal groups composing each pair are symmetrical though some parts of them cross and some join to each other. For example, in each of vertebrates' nervous systems, there is a pair of neuronal groups from the retinae via optic nerves to visual areas on occipital lobes though optic nerves cross. Such paired neuronal groups are included in neuronal groups and in complex neuronal groups in these books.
As will be explained later, it is premised that paired neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions and some functions processing them cause things appearing beyond sensory organs. For example, your face appearing to me on a visual sensation with both eyes seems to be in the position beyond my eyes. In contrast, when I close my right eye, your face appearing on a visual sensation with my left eye seems to be in the position of my left eye. In addition, because there is a pair, an individual which suffer a disorder in one of the pair sometimes survive the disorder. That is true of not only nervous systems but also eyes, ears, lungs, kidneys, limbs, testicles, ovaries, and so forth. In addition, because neuronal groups compose a pair also in the cerebrum, the dominant hemisphere is questioned. For example, in a right handed person, the left hemisphere is often dominant. In this case, even if the right one suffers a moderate disorder, mental and bodily functions sometimes do not suffer serious disorders.

NEURONAL GROUPS

The above unitary neuronal groups, sensory group, complex neuronal groups, and the mixtures of some of them are called Neuronal Groups in these books.

SERIES OF NEURONS ACTUALLY JOINING

In a complex neuronal group, not all the neurons join directly or indirectly. If all did so, for example, a spot in the retina might become all the field in the visual area on the occipital lobe.
In a complex neuronal group, each series of neurons which actually join directly or indirectly can be called a "Series of Neurons Actually Joining." When they are defined so, a neuronal group can be redefined as the bunch of a lot of series of neurons actually joining.

NEURONAL GROUPS RETAINING SPATIAL RELATIVE POSITIONS

    When we imagine that the bunch of the axons of a neuronal group is cut in a round slice in the same way as a stem of asparagus is cut, it turns out that each series of neurons actually joining has a spatial relative position in the slice as a property or attribute. Unless neurons join to or are joined to by in one-to-many way or in many-to-one way again and again and unless axons are tangled, the spatial relative position of each series of neurons actually joining is retained to a great degree. Otherwise, for example, a straight line appearing on visual sensations would be irregular curves. Such neuronal groups as the spatial relative position of each series of neurons actually joining is retained to a degree can be called "Neuronal Group Retaining Spatial Relative Position."
    In such a neuronal group's excitement and transmission, the spacial relative position of whether or not each series of neurons actually joining excites and transmits is retained. Thereby the spatial change of the density of excitements and transmissions is also retained. For example, the series transmitting shadows excite and transmit at law density, and those transmitting highlights excite and transmit at high density, and those are retained at least from the retinae to the occipital lobes. The neuronal groups and ways which the sources of sensations and images go through need to be retain spatial relative positions and to be neuronal groups retaining spatial relative positions.
    In contrast, neuronal groups which cause smooth muscles' contractions or endocrine glands' secretions do not need to retain them. However, practically, they also retain them. That is because, embryologically, it is difficult to generate neuronal groups whose axons are tangled. Therefore all neuronal groups more or less retain spatial relative positions.

NEURONAL GROUPS' INSTANT EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS

In a series of neurons actually joining in a neuronal group, the time (T) from the time when the neuron which is, so to speak, the first runner excites and transmits to the time when the neuron which is, so to speak, the last runner excites and transmits by the transmission of the first runner can be called "Intra-Series Transmitting Time (T)." In every series of neurons actually joining in every neuronal group, intra-series transmitting times are thousandth or hundredths of a second, and their differences can be ignored. Such neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions can be called neuronal groups' "Instant" Excitements and Transmissions or Exciting and Transmitting Instantly.
In a neuronal group's instant excitement and transmission, not only the spatial relative positions but also the temporal relative positions of series of neurons actually joining's excitements and transmissions are retained to a degree. Otherwise, for example, the movement of an object performing uniform linear motion appearing on a visual sensation would be chaotic. In addition, in a neuronal group's instant excitement and transmission, the frequencies of series of neurons actually joining's excitements and transmissions are retained. Otherwise, for example, even the color of an object appearing on a visual sensation would change randomly. Therefore neuronal groups' instant excitements and transmissions can also be called Neuronal Groups' Excitements and Transmissions Retaining Temporal Relative Positions.

NEURONAL GROUPS' EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS

    In summary, a neuronal group's excitement and transmission is the instant excitement and transmission retaining temporal relative positions to a degree of a neuronal group retaining spatial position to a degree.
    Here for the first time, we can strictly define neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions. In a neuronal group, which retains spatial relative positions to a degree, some series of neurons actually joining's instantly exciting and transmitting while retaining temporal relative positions to a degree and the other series' stopping can be called a Neuronal Group's Excitement and Transmission or Exciting and Transmitting. In addition, when we need to emphasize the retention of spatial and temporal relative position, it can be called the Instant Excitement and Transmission Retaining Temporal Relative Positions of a Neuronal Group Retaining Spatial Positions.
    In contrast, in a neuronal group, all the series's stopping can be called the Neuronal Group' s Stop or Stopping.
    In addition, the presynaptic transmissions of the neurons which belong to the unitary neuronal group which is, so to speak, the last runner in a complex neuronal group can be called the complex neuronal group's Presynaptic Transmission or its transmitting. In contrast, the postsynaptic transmissions of the neurons which belong to the unitary neuronal group which is, so to speak, a first runner in a complex neuronal group can be called the complex neuronal group's Postsynaptic Transmission or its being transmitted.

NEURONAL GROUPS' INNATE OR ACQUIRED ACTIVATIONS

In order for memory or what is called "learning" to exist and function, first, neurons activatable acquiredly need to exist and function, and second, neuronal groups involving them need to exist and function. For example 1, when I see another particular person, in order for his or her eyes to be memorized, the part of some neuronal groups which memorizes the white of his or her eyes needs to be activated at high density, and the part which memorizes their pupils needs to be activated at low density. For example 2, in order for children to learn that mosquitoes bite skins, it is necessary that there are some neuronal ways between the neuronal group memorizing and storing mosquitoes' images and those memorizing and storing biting's images and that those neuronal ways are activated when their skins are bitten by some mosquitoes. Such activations can be called Neuronal Groups' Acquired Activations or Being Acquiredly Activated.
In contrast, the neuronal groups causing sensations, pleasure or displeasure sensations, drives, instinctive functions, autonomic functions have already been activated enough to cause those functions when they have matured. Otherwise, the babies of even higher animals cannot exist. Such activations can be called Neuronal Groups' Innate Activations (by Genes) or Being Activated Innately (by Genes).

THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

    As was explained earlier, sights, sounds, smells, dizziness, taste, pain, hotness, coldness, palpitation, dyspnea, nausea, hunger, thirst, images, ideas, colors, brightness, high-law and loudness, and so on can be called Things Appearing (as Mental Phenomena). Things appearing as mental phenomena's existing or being premised to exist can be called things' Appearing (as Mental Phenomena). For example, the display of my personal computer, its keyboard, my hands striking it are appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes, the sounds of striking the keyboard are appearing on an auditory sensation with both ears, and slight hunger is appearing on an autonomic sensation to me, a writer of this book, at present.
    The words "things appearing (as mental phenomena)" sometimes designate sights, images, and so on and sometimes designate things in themselves like material things, bodies, and so on which are premised to be represented as appearing things. The words "things appearing (as mental phenomena)" designate the former, that is, sights, images, and so on in these books. For example, material things' reflectance, transmittance, and index of refraction which are premised to be represented as sights are not appearing things, but sights are appearing things.
    The words "things' appearing" sometimes designate sights, images, and so on's existing or being premised to exist and sometimes designate their being represented as sights, images, and so on. The words "things' appearing" designate the former in these books.
    Qualities like colors, high-low, and so on, quantities like brightness-darkness, loudness-silence, and so on, spatial positions, temporal positions, spatial arrangements, temporal arrangements, their changes are the properties or attributes of appearing spatial and temporal things, and they appear. Therefore they can be called Appearing Properties or Attributes.
    The above apply to the following words.

(1) Words like "appearing properties" and "properties' appearing" where the word of "things" in "appearing things" and in "things' appearing" are replaced by other words
(2) Words like "things appearing on a sensation," "things appearing as an image," "things appearing on a sensation," and "things' appearing as an image" where the modifiers like "on a sensation" and "as an image" are attached to the verb "appear"
(3) Words like "things which appeared to me in the past" and "things which will appear to me in the future" where the tense in a broad sense of the verb "appear" is changed.

BASIC KINDS OF THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

    The following are basic kinds of things appearing as mental phenomena.

(s)In general, things appearing on a kind of sensation or things appearing on sensations, and in each individual, things appearing on a sensation

(s1)In general, things appearing on the visual kind of sensation or things appearing on visual sensations, and in each individual, things appearing on a visual sensation
    Sights, colors, brightness, written words, and so on
(s1-1)In general, things appearing on the visual kind of sensation with one eye or things appearing on visual sensations with one eye, and in each individual, things appearing on a visual sensation with one eye
    Sights which are planar and are localized to one eye
(s1-2)In general, things appearing on the visual kind of sensation with both eyes or things appearing on visual sensations with both eyes, and in each individual, things appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes
    Sights which are three-dimensional and beyond both eyes
(s2)In general, things appearing on the auditory kind of sensation or things appearing on auditory sensations, and in each individual, things appearing on an auditory sensation
    Sounds, voices, high-low, loudness, spoken words, and so on.
(s2-1)In general, things appearing on the auditory kind of sensation with one ear or things appearing on auditory sensations with one ear, and in each individual, things appearing on an auditory sensation with one ear
    Sounds which are spatial points and are localized to one ear
(s2-2)In general, things appearing on the auditory kind of sensation with both ears or things appearing on auditory sensations with both ears, and in each individual, things appearing on an auditory sensation with both ears
    Sound sources which are three-dimensional and are beyond both ears
(s3)In general, things appearing on the olfactory kind of sensation or things appearing on olfactory sensations, and in each individual, things appearing on an olfactory sensation
    Smells, fragrances, odors, and so on
(s3-1)In general, things appearing on the olfactory kind of sensation with one nasal cavity or things appearing on olfactory sensations with one nasal cavity, and in each individual, things appearing on an olfactory sensation with one nasal cavity
    Smells which are planar and are limited to one nasal cavity
(s3-2)In general, things appearing on the olfactory kind of sensation with both nasal cavities or things appearing on olfactory sensations with both nasal cavities, and in each individual, things appearing on an olfactory sensation with both nasal cavities
    Smell sources which are three-dimensional and are beyond both nasal cavities
(s4)In general, things appearing on the balancing kind of sensation or things appearing on balancing sensations, and in each individual, things appearing on a balancing sensation
    Dizziness, appearing acceleration, appearing rotation, and so on
(s5)In general, things appearing on the taste kind of sensation or things appearing on taste sensations, and in each individual, things appearing on a taste sensation
    Tastes, sweetness, saltiness, sourness, bitterness, and so on
(s6)In general, things appearing on the somatic kind of sensation or things appearing on somatic sensations, and in each individual, things appearing on a somatic sensation
    Pain, itches, hotness, coldness, and so on in skins, bones, striated muscles, tendons, and so on
(s7)In general, things appearing on the autonomic kind of sensation or things appearing on autonomic sensations, and in each individual, things appearing on an autonomic sensation
    Pain, itches, hotness, coldness, and so on in mucous membranes, digestive systems, circulatory systems, and so on, palpitation, dyspnea, nausea, hunger, thirst, and so on

(i)In general, things appearing as a kind of sensory image, a kind of sensory image, things appearing as sensory images, or sensory images and in each individual, things appearing as a sensory image or a sensory image

(i1)In general, things appearing as the visual kind of sensory image, the visual kind of sensory image, things appearing as visual sensory images, or visual sensory images, and in each individual, things appearing as a visual sensory image or a visual sensory image
(i1-1)In general, things appearing as the visual kind of sensory image (as if) with one eye, the visual kind of sensory image (as if) with one eye, things appearing as visual sensory images (as if) with one eye, or visual sensory images (as if) with one eye, and in each individual, things appearing as a visual sensory image (as if) with one eye or a visual sensory image (as if) with one eye
(i1-2)In general, things appearing as the visual kind of sensory image (as if) with both eyes, the visual kind of sensory image (as if) with both eyes, things appearing as visual sensory images (as if) with both eyes, or visual sensory images (as if) with both eyes, and in each individual, things appearing as a visual sensory image (as if) with both eyes or a visual sensory image (as if) with both eyes
(i2)In general, things appearing as the auditory kind of sensory image, the auditory kind of sensory image, things appearing as auditory sensory images, or auditory sensory images, and in each individual, things appearing as an auditory sensory image or an auditory sensory image
(i2-1)In general, things appearing as the auditory kind of sensory image (as if) with one ear, the auditory kind of sensory image (as if) with one ear, things appearing as auditory sensory images (as if) with one ear, or auditory sensory images (as if) with one ear, and in each individual, things appearing as an auditory sensory image (as if) with one ear or an auditory sensory image (as if) with one ear
(i2-2)In general, things appearing as the auditory kind of sensory image (as if) with both ears, the auditory kind of sensory image (as if) with both ears, things appearing as auditory sensory images (as if) with both ears, or auditory sensory images (as if) with both ears, and each individual, things appearing as an auditory sensory image (as if) with both ears or an auditory sensory image (as if) with both ears
(i3)In general, things appearing as the olfactory kind of sensory image, the olfactory kind of sensory image, things appearing as olfactory sensory images, or olfactory sensory images, and in each individual, things appearing as an olfactory sensory image or an olfactory sensory image
(i3-1)In general, things appearing as the olfactory kind of sensory image (as if) with one nasal cavity, the olfactory kind of sensory image (as if) with one nasal cavity, things appearing as olfactory sensory images (as if) with one nasal cavity, or olfactory sensory images (as if) with one nasal cavity, and in each individual things appearing as an olfactory sensory image (as if) with one nasal cavity or an olfactory sensory image (as if) with one nasal cavity
(i3-2)In general, things appearing as the olfactory kind of sensory image (as if) with both nasal cavities, the olfactory kind of sensory image (as if) with both nasal cavities, things appearing as olfactory sensory images (as if) with both nasal cavities, or olfactory sensory images (as if) with both nasal cavities, and in each individual, things appearing as an olfactory sensory image (as if) with both nasal cavities or an olfactory sensory image (as if) with both nasal cavities
(i4)In general, things appearing as the balancing kind of sensory image, the balancing kind of sensory image, things appearing as balancing sensory images, or balancing sensory images, and in each individual, things appearing as a balancing sensory image or a balancing sensory image
(i5)In general, things appearing as the taste kind of sensory image, the taste kind of sensory image, things appearing as taste sensory images, or a taste sensory image, in each individual, things appearing as a taste sensory image or a taste sensory image
(i6)In general, things appearing as the somatic kind of sensory image, the somatic kind of sensory image, things appearing as somatic sensory images, or somatic sensory images, and in each individual, things appearing as a somatic sensory image or a somatic sensory image
(i7)In general, things appearing as the autonomic kind of sensory image, the autonomic kind of sensory image, things appearing as autonomic sensory images, autonomic sensory images, and in each individual, things appearing as an autonomic sensory image or an autonomic sensory image

    Simply, things occurring to me, past things remembered, future things expected, unreal things imagined, and so on are images.
    When the word "images" is used, visual sensory images occur to us, but that word is also used about auditory sensory images, olfactory sensory images, and so on in these books. For example 1, when a person who is not present here occurs to us, his or her face appears as a visual sensory image, his or her spoken words appear as an auditory sensory image, and his or her touch appears as a somatic sensory image. In addition, his or her smell with that of tobacco, alcohol, perfume, or the like sometimes appears as an olfactory sensory image. For example 2, when some events on the next day in school or office are expected at home, its buildings and people appear as a visual sensory image, their words and the sound of chimes appear as an auditory sensory image. From the beginning, we think with some visual and auditory sensory images of words. Otherwise, we could not think without writing words or speaking words aloud.
    The above are the most basic things appearing as mental phenomena, and the following are comparatively basic things appearing as mental phenomena.
    Strictly, palpitation, dyspnea, and so on contain not only things appearing on an autonomic sensation but also things appearing on a somatic sensation which accompany the chest's expansion and contraction, and are not pure things appearing on an autonomic sensation. However, each of palpitation, dyspnea, and so on is looked upon as a thing appearing on some sensations. A thing appearing on sensations which consists of things appearing on more than one kind of sensation and which are looked upon as a thing appearing on some sensations can be called a "Thing Appearing on a complex sensation."
    However, the following definitions, too, will be made in these books. Things appearing on sensations which are premised to be caused by the nervous function which involves some sensory nerves in a narrow sense and which does not involve any other sensory nerves in a broad sense can be called Things Appearing on the Somatic Kind of Sensation or Things Appearing on Somatic Sensations. In contrast, things appearing on complex sensations which is premised to be caused by the nervous functions which involve some autonomic nerves are also called Things Appearing on the Autonomic Kind of Sensation or Things Appearing on Autonomic Sensations in these books. That is, when things appearing on complex sensations contain some things appearing on autonomic sensations, they are also called Things Appearing on Autonomic Sensations in these books. The reason why things appearing on autonomic sensations are given priority to in such a way will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS."
    Things appearing on autonomic sensations are the vaguest of all things appearing on sensations. However, for example, palpitation and dyspnea appear on an autonomic sensation. Things appearing as autonomic sensory images are the vaguest of all the appearing things, and it is probable that they do not exist. However, because it is possible that they exist, they were enumerated in the above list.
    Things appearing on a visual sensation with one eye, things appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes, things appearing on an auditory sensation with one ear, and so on are each homogeneous in a sense. For example, all things appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes have colors and brightness as properties and are stereoscopic and beyond both eyes, and they are homogeneous in such a sense. In contrast, things appearing on an autonomic sensation and things appearing as an autonomic sensory image are not homogeneous but heterogeneous. For example, palpitation, dyspnea, and nausea do not resemble one another at least, and they are far from homogeneous. The homogeneous are premised to be caused by a single function. For example, things appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes are premised to be caused by paired neuronal groups' excitement and transmission from the retinas to optic nerves (they cross here) to visual areas, and they can be looked upon as a single function. In contrast, the heterogeneous cannot be premised to be caused by a single function. Therefore, as far as things appearing on the autonomic kind of sensation and things appearing as the autonomic kind of sensory image are concerned, even in each individual, the plural forms like things appearing on autonomic "kinds" of "sensations" or on autonomic "sensations" are usually used in these books.

THINGS APPEARING ON THE SAME KIND OF SENSATION AND SENSORY IMAGE = THINGS APPEARING ON EACH KIND OF SENSATION AND SENSORY IMAGE

Though a visual sensory image is not as clear as things appearing on a visual sensation, the former resembles the latter, though an auditory sensory image is not as clear as things appearing on an auditory sensation, the former resembles the latter, and the same applies to olfactory sensory images, balancing sensory images, and so on. For example, though another person's face appearing as a visual sensory image is not as clear as his or her face appearing on a visual sensation, the former resembles the latter, and though another person's voice appearing as an auditory sensory image is not as clear as his or her voice appearing on an auditory sensation, the former resembles the latter. That is because things appearing both on visual sensations and as visual sensory images have colors and brightness as necessary properties, because things appearing both on auditory sensations and as auditory sensory images have high-law and loudness of sounds as necessary properties, and the same are repeated. The things appearing on sensations and the sensory images which have the same necessary properties which are different only in clearness in such a way can be called Things Appearing on the "Same Kind" of Sensation and Sensory Image or Things Appearing on "Each Kind" of Sensation and Sensory Image in general, and in particular, Things Appearing on the Visual Kind of Sensation and Sensory Image, Things Appearing on the Auditory Kind of Sensation and Sensory Image, and so on.
It is in things appearing on the same kind of sensation and sensory image that things appearing on a sensation and things appearing as a sensory image are alike. It is not beyond each kind that they are alike. For example, a thing appearing on a visual sensation and a thing appearing as an auditory sensory image are not alike at all. More concretely, another person's face appearing on a visual sensation and his or her voice appearing as an auditory sensory image are not alike at all.

THINGS APPEARING ON PLEASURE OR DISPLEASURE SENSATIONS

    Some pleasure or displeasure almost always appear on sensations. For example, the pain on the skins appears on a somatic sensation, and palpitation, dyspnea, hunger or repletion, thirst, and nausea appear on autonomic sensations, and they are pleasure or displeasure. For example 1, moderate hunger is sometimes pleasure, and excessive hunger is often displeasure. For example 2, though excessive palpitation and dyspnea are always displeasure, moderate palpitation and respiration are sometimes pleasure. (s3)-(s7) have such pleasure or displeasure as properties or attributes. (s3)-(s7) which have some pleasure or displeasure as properties can be called "Things Appearing on Pleasure or Displeasure Sensations" in general, and in particular, Things Appearing on Pleasure or Displeasure Olfactory Sensations, Things Appearing on Pleasure or Displeasure Balancing Sensations, Things Appearing on Pleasure or Displeasure Taste Sensations, Things Appearing on Pleasure or Displeasure Somatic Sensations, and Things Appearing on Pleasure or Displeasure Autonomic Sensations.
    The pain, itches, hotness, coldness, and so on in the skins, bones, striated muscles, tendons, ligaments, and so on are included in things appearing on a pleasure or displeasure somatic sensation. That is because those tissues or organs are reached mainly by sensory nerves in a narrow sense. In contrast, those in the mucous membranes, digestive systems, circulatory systems, and so on are included in things appearing on pleasure or displeasure autonomic sensations. That is because those tissues or organs are reached mainly by autonomic nerves.
    Excluding things appearing on visual sensations and things appearing on auditory sensations, things appearing on sensations are things appearing on pleasure or displeasure sensations. They are psychologically significant because they have pleasure or displeasure as properties or attributes. Neither things appearing on visual sensations nor things appearing on auditory sensations are things appearing on pleasure or displeasure sensations. For example, eyes' or ears' pain is a thing appearing on a somatic sensation, a thing appearing on a autonomic sensation, or a metaphor for mental pain. Though things appearing on visual sensations and things appearing on auditory sensations have no pleasure or displeasure, they are psychologically significant because the visual sensory image and the auditory sensory image which are caused from them occupy most of the sensory image. After all, (s3)-(s7) are significant for emotions, and (s1)(s2) are so for memories, perceptions, associations, and thinkings.
    Things appearing on a pleasure or displeasure sensation have some spatial and temporal parts where pleasure is dominant and the other spatial and temporal parts where displeasure is dominant. In things appearing on a pleasure or displeasure sensation, some spatial and temporal parts where pleasure is dominant can be called "Things Appearing on a Pleasure Sensation," and the other spatial and temporal parts where displeasure is dominant can be called "Things Appearing on a Displeasure Sensation."
    After all, we can decide whether a thing appearing as mental phenomenon is pleasure or displeasure only according to how animals function to it. As will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS," the autonomic sensations which cause functional impulses are pleasure ones.

THINGS APPEARING ON SENSORY ORGANS ⇔ THINGS APPEARING BEYOND SENSORY ORGANS

    (s1-1)(s2-1)(s3-1)(s4)(s5)(s6)(s7)(i1-1)(i2-1)(i3-1)(i4)(i5)(i6)(i7) do appear in or on the places where their sensory groups exist, and do not appear beyond those places. For example, when each of us closes the right eye, another person's face appearing on a visual sensation with the left eye is a plane, does appear on the left eye, and does not appear beyond it. (s1-1)(s2-1)(s3-1)(s4)(s5)(s6)(s7)(i1-1)(i2-1)(i3-1)(i4)(i5)(i6)(i7) which do appear in or on the place where their own sensory groups exist, and do not appear beyond those places can be called "Things Appearing on Sensory Organs."
    In contrast, (s1-2)(s2-2)(s3-2)(i1-2)(i2-2)(i3-2) are stereoscopic. More significantly, they appear beyond the places where their own sensory groups exist. For example, while each of us is opening both eyes, another person's face appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes is stereoscopic and does appear beyond both eyes. (s1-2)(s2-2)(s3-2)(i1-2)(i2-2)(i3-2) which are stereoscopic and do appear beyond where their sensory groups exist can be called "Things Appearing Beyond Sensory Organs."
    Though the explanations of sensory images are omitted in the following explanations, they are the same as those of things appearing on sensations.
    In things appearing on somatic sensations and things appearing on autonomic sensations where their own sensory organs or groups are not clear, the spaces where things appear are the same as those where their own sensory cells are distributed. The space where things appearing on a somatic sensation appear are that of the skins, striated muscles, bones, tendons, ligaments, and joints where sensory cells in a narrow sense are distributed. The space where things appearing on autonomic sensations are that of mucous membranes, circulatory systems, respiratory systems, and so on where the sensory cells in a broad sense in an autonomic nervous system are distributed.
    The space where things appearing on auditory sensations with one ear appear and that where things appearing on balancing sensations appear are no more than points. That is because the spatial positions and arrangements of their sensory groups in a broad sense in inner ears represent not the spatial positions and arrangements in or out of the body but sounds' high-low and some other qualities.

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL THINGS AND PROPERTIES APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

    As was explained earlier, things appearing as mental phenomena are divided into spatial and temporal things and their properties or attributes appearing as mental phenomena. For example, the sight of a tree is a spatial and temporal thing appearing on a visual sensation, and its colors and brightness are properties appearing on a visual sensation. A little more closely, the spatial and temporal things of the leaves of the tree appearing on a visual sensation have the color of green as a property, those getting the sunlight directly have that of bright green as a property, and those in the shadow which are not getting the sunlight directly have that of dark green as a property. In such way, more closely, it is found that the first property of the quality of color has the second property of the quantity of brightness. However, even when a spatial and temporal thing (0) has a first property (1) and when the first property (1) has a second property (2), such a representation as "(0)'s having (1)(2) as properties" are made in these books.
    In things appearing on each kind of sensation and sensory image, appearing spatial and temporal things are alike, and appearing properties are alike. For example, in things appearing on the visual kind of sensation and sensory image, the colors of a person's face appearing on a visual sensation and the colors of that person's face appearing as a visual sensory image are alike.
    Properties appearing on visual and auditory sensations do not include any pleasure or displeasure. Properties appearing on olfactory, balancing, taste, somatic, and autonomic sensations include pleasure or displeasure. Properties appearing as sensory images do not include any pleasure or displeasure. For example, what seem to be pleasure or displeasure in mental emotions like anxiety, fear, and so on are the pleasure or displeasure which things appearing on autonomic sensations have as properties, as will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS."
    Things appearing on sensations and things appearing as sensory images, which has already been explained, are spatial and temporal things or their properties. Individual images which will be explained later are spatial and temporal parts of sensory images. Complex images which will be explained later consist spatially and temporally of individual images. Things appearing on perceptions consist spatially and temporally of some parts of things appearing on sensations and complex images. Therefore all things appearing as mental phenomena are spatial and temporal things or their properties. Simply, they do not transcend space and time.

THINGS APPEARING INTENSELY OR FAINTLY

    Every spatial and temporal thing appearing as a mental phenomenon has some kinds of quantities like brightness or darkness, loudness or quietness, distance, size, intensity, clearness or vagueness, and so on as properties, and such kinds of quantities appear. In addition, such kinds of quantities reflect some kinds of quantities of some things in themselves. For example, intense thirsty appearing on autonomic sensations reflects high osmotic pressure of body fluid. Such kinds of quantities can be called "Quantities" or "Intensities" Appearing (as Mental Phenomena). In addition, appearing things whose appearing quantities are large or small can be called Things Appearing "Intensely or Faintly." A thing appearing intensely or faintly's appearing can be called the Thing's Appearing Intensely or Faintly.
    Some examples of appearing quantity will be enumerated below. They are also represented by the words of "intensity," "intense or faint," or "intensely or faintly" in these books.

○Brightness
    This word represents a kind of appearing quantity which everything appearing on the visual kind of sensation and sensory image has.

○Distance, farness, or closeness
    This word represents a kind of appearing quantity which everything appearing beyond sensory organs, that is, everything appearing on the visual kind of sensation and sensory image with both eyes, everything appearing on the auditory kind of sensation and sensory image with both ears, and everything appearing on the olfactory kind of sensation and sensory image with both nasal cavities have.

○Loudness
    This word represents a kind of appearing quantity which everything appearing on the auditory kind of sensation and sensory image has.

○Clearness
    This word represents a kind of appearing quantity which everything appearing has. In things appearing on a visual sensation, the periphery is vague and the central part is clear. In general, things appearing on somatic sensations are clearer than things appearing on autonomic sensations. In general, things appearing on sensations are clearer than things appearing as sensory images. Clearness appearing on visual sensation can be likened to the resolution of photography. Usually, the larger the number of sensory cells in retinae is, the larger clearness appearing on visual sensations is like the larger the number of photodetector is, the larger the resolution of photography is. In addition, if the lenses of a person's eyes suffer from cataract, the clearness declines like if the lens of a camera go dirty, the resolution declines.

〇Spatial size
    Things appearing on the visual kind of sensation and sensory image and things appearing on the somatic kind of sensation and sensory image have clear spatial sizes. For example 1, in things appearing on visual sensations with both eyes, we can guess the size of things in front of us. For example 2, in things appearing on somatic sensations, we can guess the extension of the skin's inflammation on our backs from the size of its pain or itch. However, some other kinds of appearing things have spatial sizes though they are vague. In things appearing on an auditory sensation with both ears and on an olfactory sensation with both nasal cavities, sound and smell sources appear, and their sizes appear, too. For example 1, we find that the sound source of a chorus is larger than that of a soloist even if we close our eyes. For example 2, in a human being, smell sources in things appearing olfactory sensations with both nasal cavities are very vague, but maybe some other animals can smell the sizes of their natural enemies. In addition, the spatial sizes in things appearing on autonomic sensations are vague, too. However, for example, the inflammation on the whole of the stomach's mucous membrane would be felt differently from that on a small part.

〇Temporal duration and frequency
    This kinds of quantities appear in every kind of appearing things. They are imminent for us in things appearing on displeasure sensations, that is, pain. Continuous and continual moderate pain is as imminent as temporary intense pain.

○Intensity
    In a narrow sense, this word represents kinds of appearing quantities which pain, hotness, coldness, and so on appearing on somatic sensations and palpitation, dyspnea, hunger, thirst, nausea, and so on appearing on autonomic sensations have. In addition, this word is used to designate the quantity of pleasure or displeasure which things appearing on pleasure or displeasure sensations have as properties or attribute. In a broad sense, brightness appearing on the visual kind of sensation and sensory image can be looked upon as the intensity of light, and loudness appearing on the visual kind of sensation and sensory image as the intensity of sounds. As was explained earlier, in these books, this word is used to designate all the kinds of appearing quantities.

THINGS APPEARING AS IMAGES = IMAGES

THINGS APPEARING AS INDIVIDUAL IMAGES = INDIVIDUAL IMAGES

In a sensory image, there are some spatial and temporal parts each of which has the following properties:

(1)that each has some properties,
(2)that each sometimes separates from the other parts,
(3)that each sometimes moves independently of the other parts,
(4)that each sometimes fuses with some of the other parts, and
(5)that each sometimes appear and disappear independently of the other parts.

The parts of a sensory image each of which has the above properties (1)-(5) can be called "Things Appearing as Individual Images," Individual Images, Thing Appearing as Individual Sensory Images, or Individual Sensory Images in general, and in particular Things Appearing as Individual Visual Images or Individual Visual images, Things Appearing as Individual Auditory images, Individual Auditory images, or so. In most cases, an individual image appears, comes closer, goes further, and fade out. For example, in a visual sensory image, the individual visual image of a certain person's body which has the spatial arrangement of the head, trunk, arms, and legs as a property appears, separates from the background, comes closer, goes further, and fades out or fuses with the background again. From now on, the words "an individual image" will usually be used for simplification. They are general words, and individual images include individual visual images, individual auditory images, and so on.
As will be explained later in the chapter "MEMORIES," some properties which a part of a neuronal source just sensed are recognized and that part is cut out and generated as an individual image's source. Therefore each individual image has already got some properties, has already been separated, and is either of the visual kind, of the auditory kind, or so. In addition, it is the minimum unit in images. Such minimum units compose the other kinds of images explained below.

THINGS APPEARING AS IMAGES = IMAGES

Things appearing as complex images, things appearing on perceptions, and things appearing on associations, which will be explained in the following sections, can be called "Things Appearing as Images" or "Images."

THINGS APPEARING AS COMPLEX IMAGES = COMPLEX IMAGES

    More than one individual image appears spatially and temporally closer to one another than to the other individual images and things appearing on sensations. For example, a particular person's face appearing as individual visual images with both eyes, his or her spoken words and names appearing as individual auditory images with both ears, and so on appear spatially and temporally closer to one another than to the other particular persons' faces appearing as individual visual images with both eyes, their spoken words and names appearing as individual auditory images with both ears, and so on. More than one individual image which appears spatially and temporally closer to one another than to the other individual images and things appearing on sensations can be called "Things Appearing as a Complex Image," a Complex Image, or a Group of Individual Images.
    Moreover, more than one complex image appears spatially and temporally closer to one another than to the other complex images and things appearing on sensations, and the same are repeated. For example, many human beings appearing as complex images appear spatially and temporally closer to one another than to apes, horses, cows, sheep, and so on appearing as complex images. The former are the image of general human beings. Moreover, for example, human beings, apes, horses, and so on appearing as complex images appear spatially and temporally closer to one another than to birds, fishes, and so on appearing as complex images. The former is the image of mammals. That is because human beings are more similar to apes, horses, and so on than to birds, fishes, and so on, and because modern people know biological classification, the theory of evolution, and so on. More than one complex image which appears spatially and temporally closer to one another than to the other complex images and things appearing on sensations and which can repeat this can be called Things Appearing as a Complex Image, a Complex Image, or a Group of Complex Images.
    Every complex image consists spatially and temporally of a lot of individual images or some complex images. After all, every complex image consists spatially and temporally of a lot of individual images.
    A complex image usually consists of more than one kind of individual sensory image, that is, different kinds of individual sensory images. For example 1, a particular person appearing as a complex image consists of his or her faces and bodies appearing as individual visual images, his or her spoken words and names appearing as individual auditory images, and so on. For example 2, a general human being appearing as a complex images consists of a lot of particular persons' faces and bodies appearing as individual visual images, spoken words of "man," "woman," "human," "being," "Homo," "sapiens," and so on appearing as individual auditory images, and so on. When it needs to be emphasized that a complex image consists of different kinds of individual sensory images, it can be called a Complex Image of Different Kinds.
    However, a few kinds of individual sensory images are usually dominant in a complex image. Above all, in human beings, individual visual images and individual auditory ones are dominant. For example, individual visual ones are dominant in complex images in mathematical or physical thinking where numerical formulas are often used, and the auditory ones are dominant in complex images in daily thinking where spoken words are usually used. The complex images where individual visual images are dominant, those where auditory ones are dominant, those where visual ones and auditory ones are dominant, or so can be called "Visual (Complex) Images," "Auditory (Complex) Images," "Visual and Auditory (Complex) Images," or so. When they have been defined so, it is no exaggeration to say that complex images are visual ones, auditory ones, or visual and auditory ones in human beings.
    In human beings, the images of language, that is, lingual images are generated. That is, language is not only the means of transmission but also that of associations and thinkings. The images of spoken words are auditory images, and those of written words are visual images.
    Complex images are the substance of what is called "Ideas." About particular things and general things, please refer to "PARTICULAR THINGS AND GENERAL THINGS." The things which have temporal extent of more than seconds, general things, functions, and so on all appear as complex images, and do not appear on sensations, as sensory images, or as individual images. What are called abstract things appear as complex images, too. For example 1, a certain person which has a temporal extent of years appears as a complex image consisting of his or her faces and bodies appearing as a lot of individual visual images, his or her spoken words and names appearing as a lot of individual auditory images, and so on. For example 2, general human beings appear as a complex image consisting of a lot of particular persons' faces and bodies appearing as individual visual images, certain spoken words "man," "woman," "human," "being," "Homo," and "sapiens" appearing as individual auditory images, erect bipedalism appearing as individual visual images, crowds in the cities appearing as individual visual and auditory images, and so on. For example 3, universal gravitation appears as a complex image consisting of the arrows representing vectors appearing as individual visual images, spoken words of "Universal" and "Gravitation" appearing as individual auditory images, and so on.

SENSORY IMAGES AND COMPLEX IMAGES

Both sensory images and complex images consist of individual images. However, the former do so on the basis of whether they are visual, auditory, or so, and the latter do so on the basis of spatial and temporal closeness. The former is like what is made by slicing the latter which makes what is called sense, and the former makes no sense by itself. It is the latter that is important for feelings, desires, egos, thinkings, and so on which will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS," and the former can be nearly ignored there. In addition, the latter are significant for our daily lives, literature, and art. However, the former cannot be ignored in this book, which explain memories in the final chapter. That is because, at the final stage of a memory, individual visual images are replayed by the visual kind of replay and comprise a visual sensory image, individual auditory images are replayed by the auditory kind of replay and comprise an auditory sensory image, and the same applies to individual olfactory images, individual balancing images, and so on.

THINGS APPEARING ON PERCEPTIONS

Some complex images and some things appearing on some kinds of sensations appear spatially and temporally closer to one another than to the other complex images and the other things appearing on sensations. For example, a particular person's face appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes, his or her faces appearing as visual complex images with both eyes, and his or her names appearing as auditory complex images with both ears appear spatially and temporally closer to one another than to the other particular persons' or the background appearing on a visual sensation. Some complex images and some things appearing on some kinds of sensations which appear spatially and temporally closer to one another than to the other complex images and the other things appearing on sensations can be called a "Thing Appearing on a Perception."
Only in things appearing on sensations, we cannot recognize any part of them as a "thing." For example, we cannot recognize a part of a person's face as a particular or general human being. For the first time when a part of things appearing on sensations fuses with some complex images, that is, when that part is perceived, we can recognize that part as a thing. For example, we can recognize a part of a person's face as that person when that part fuses with his or her complex images. If that part fuses with a general human being's complex images, we can recognize that part as a general human being. For the first time in such a way, what is called "recognition" becomes possible.

A LIMITED NUMBER OR LESS OF IMAGES' APPEARING

In a time of tenths of a second or less, a limited number or less of complex images appear, some of them appear intensely, and others appear faintly. For example, when each of us thinks of the self, its images appear intensely, the images of some other persons or the society appear faintly. That is the substance of some parts of what is called "consciousness."
However, the limited number is not determined by species or individuals but varies in situations. For example, when some images appear very intensely, the number gets small. For example, when a boy or girl friend appears, the number is smaller than when he or she does not appear.

THINGS APPEARING ON ASSOCIATIONS

In a time of tenths of a second or more, some things appearing on perceptions and some complex images appear spatially and temporally close, these complex images and some other complex images appear spatially and temporally close, these complex images and some other complex images appear spatially and temporally close, and the same are repeated. Such series of complex images are also looked upon as a complex image. However, such series of complex images in a time of tenths of a second or more is not restricted in the same way as is explained in the above section. Therefore such series of them can be called a "Thing Appearing on an Associations," and each of them can be called a Thing Appearing as a Complex Image "in a Narrow Sense" or a Complex Image in a Narrow Sense. For example, when each of us wakes up in the morning, the windows appearing on a perception and our town appearing as a complex image appear close, this and our office or school appearing as a complex image appear close, and this and the people belonging to it appearing as complex images appear close, and the same are repeated. That series of complex images are a thing appearing on an association.
However, when things appearing as complex images in a narrow sense and things appearing on associations do not need to be distinguished, they are called Things Appearing as Complex Images (in a Broad Sense) or Complex Images (in a Broad Sense) in these books.

RECOGNITIONS

Not only in perceptions but also in associations, what is called recognition become possible. For example, after I met, talked with, and parted from a particular person, in an association, when the complex image of that person and the complex image of general human beings having gentle personalities appear spatially and temporally close, that person is recognized as a general human being having a gentle personality.
Such perceptions and associations are called "Recognition (in a Broad Sense)" in these books. Such recognition is distinct from the recognition in a narrow sense which will be explained in the chapter "MEMORIES."

Things Appearing as Images = Images

Now we have found the following three groups.

Group (1): Things appearing as complex images (in a narrow sense) = Complex images (in a narrow sense)
Group (2): Things appearing on perceptions
Group (3): Things appearing on associations

(1)(2)(3) contain (1), and the most significant for memories, emotions, egos, and thinkings are (1). In addition, if the words "things appearing as complex images in a narrow sense, things appearing on perceptions, or things appearing on associations," are always used, sentences would be complicated. Therefore (1)(2)(3) are also called Things Appearing as (Complex) Images (in a Broad Sense) or (Complex) Images (in a Broad Sense) in these books. That is, the word "images" or "complex images" designate complex images in a narrow sense, things appearing on perceptions, or things appearing on associations in these books.
In addition, in the same way as in the above chapters, (1)(2)(3) where individual visual images individual auditory images, individual visual images and individual auditory images, or so are dominant can be called Visual Images, Auditory Images, Visual and Auditory Images, or so.

WORDS APPEARING AS IMAGES = LANGUAGE APPEARING AS IMAGES = LINGUAL IMAGES

    In human beings, spoken words are sensed on auditory sensations and are generated and memorized and stored and recollected as auditory images. In addition, written words and signs are sensed on visual sensations and memorized and stored and recollected as visual images. In addition, it is probable that Braille are sensed on somatic sensations and memorized and stored and recollected as somatic images. The images of spoken words, written words, signs, Braille, and so on can be called "Words Appearing as Images," "Language Appearing as Images," "Lingual Images," or so.
    We are shown not only words but also the things which they designate by our elders like parents, or it is sometimes clear in situations which things they designate. Therefore, when lingual images are generated or renewed, the images of the things which they represent are also generated or renewed, and the neuronal ways among their sources are activated on the basis of temporal closeness. While those are repeated, when those words are perceived, those things which they represent, too, are associated, and those words come to have "meanings."
    Of course, language is means of transmission and storage, too. Through language, complicated complex images, that is, ideas are generated or renewed and memorized and stored and recollected and not only transmitted as spoken words but also transmitted and stored as written words and sighs beyond generations and regions. In such a way, complicated ideas like the Ptolemaic system and the Copernican system, the Creation and Darwinism, and aristocracy and democracy are constructed in the human history. Some of them are dissolved or reconstructed but a lot of them are forgotten and lost.

INTENSITIES OF IMAGES

Every image has intensity as a property as the average of the intensities of the individual images or parts of things appearing on sensations which it consists of. For example, when each of us thinks of a human being as an individual, its images appear more intensely than the images of the society.

COMPOSITION OF THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

Things appearing as mental phenomena are either (1) things appearing on sensations, (2) sensory images, (3) individual images, (4) (complex) images (in a narrow sense), (5) things appearing on perceptions, (6) things appearing on associations, (7) things appearing on emotions, (8) things appearing on egos, or (9) things appearing on thinkings. Out of them, (1) consist of (1), (2)(3)(4)(6)　consist of (3), and (5)(7)(8)(9) consist of (1)(3). After all, all things appearing as mental phenomena consist spatially and temporarily of things appearing on sensations or individual images. As was explained earlier, all things appearing on sensations and all individual images are spatial temporal things or their properties. Therefore all things appearing as mental phenomena are spatial and temporal things or their properties. That is, they do not transcend space and time.

A CONTINUITY OF THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

As long as each of us is awake or is dreaming, something appearing as mental phenomena appears continuously. If we could close our eyes completely, we could hear something. If we could close our eyes and ears completely, we could feel our hands, masks, or so blocking them. If things appearing on visual, auditory, and somatic sensations could be blocked, hunger or thirst could appear on autonomic sensations. If things appearing on sensations could be blocked, some images would appear continuously as long as each of us is awake or is dreaming. Such a continuity can be called a "Continuity of Appearing Things" or a "Continuity of Images." It is the substance of what is called a "Continuity of Consciousness," "Stream of Consciousness," or so.
When each of us is asleep and is not dreaming or is unconscious, nothing appears. However, as long as each of us wakes up or dreams again and has memories, appearing things are looked upon as intermittent. For example, when each of us wakes up in the morning, the events of yesterday and the schedules of today appear as images.

NERVOUS FUNCTIONS CAUSING THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

    Every kind of things appearing as mental phenomena is premised to be caused by some things in themselves. For example, things appearing on a visual sensation are premised to be caused by the photons which reach the retinae, the material things and their functions which reflect, permeate, and refract the photons reaching the retinae, the neuronal group's excitement and transmission from the retinae to optic nerves to visual areas on occipital lobes, and so on.
    Every kind of things appearing as mental phenomena is premised to be caused directly by (1) some parts of the nervous system and their functions and to be caused indirectly by (2) some other parts of the nervous system and their functions. (1)(2) can be called the "Nervous Function Causing the Kind of Things Appearing (as Mental Phenomena)." For example, the neuronal group's excitement and transmission from the retinae to optic nerves to visual areas on occipital lobes, and so on are the nervous function causing things appearing on a visual sensation.
    In addition, the nervous function causing things appearing on a sensation can be called the "Sensation," and that causing things appearing as a sensory image can be called the "Recollection (of the Sensory Image).
    These words imply the things appearing as mental phenomena caused by them in our daily lives. For example, when we use the word "sensation," not only eyes, ears, or nerves but also sights, sounds, touches, and so on occur to us. Therefore

(S) a sensation and the things appearing on the sensation which it causes
(R) the recollection of a sensory image and the sensory image which it causes

can also be called

(S')the Sensation
(R')the Recollection of the Sensory Image ( = a Recollection)

    The following is their detail.

[nf] The nervous functions causing things appearing as mental phenomena
  [s]In general, a kind of sensation or sensations, and in each individual, a sensation
    [s1]In general, the visual kind of sensation or visual sensations, and in each individual, a visual sensation
      [s1-1]In general, the visual kind of sensation with one eye or visual sensations with one eye, and in each individual, a visual sensation with one eye
      [s1-2]In general, the visual kind of sensation with both eyes or visual sensations with both eyes, and in each individual, a visual sensation with both eyes
    [s2]In general, the auditory kind of sensation or auditory sensations, and in each individual, an auditory sensation
      [s2-1]In general, the auditory kind of sensation with one ear or auditory sensations with one ear, and in each individual, an auditory sensation with one ear
      [s2-2]In general, the auditory kind of sensation with both ears or auditory sensations with both ears, and in each individual, an auditory sensation with both ears
    [s3]In general, the olfactory kind of sensation or olfactory sensations, and in each individual, an olfactory sensation
      [s3-1]In general, the olfactory kind of sensation with one nasal cavity or olfactory sensations with one nasal cavity, and in each individual, an olfactory sensation with one nasal cavity
      [s3-2]In general, the olfactory kind of sensation with both nasal cavities or olfactory sensations with both nasal cavities, and in each individual, an olfactory sensation with both nasal cavities
    [s4]In general, the balancing kind of sensation or balancing sensations, and in each individual, a balancing sensation
    [s5]In general, the taste kind of sensation or taste sensations, and in each individual, a taste sensation
    [s6]In general, somatic kind of sensation or somatic sensations, and in each individual, a somatic sensation
    [s7]In general, autonomic kinds of sensations or autonomic sensations, and in each individual, autonomic sensations
  [i]In general the recollection of a kind of sensory image or recollections of sensory images, and in each individual, the recollection of a sensory image
    [i1]In general, the recollection of the visual kind of sensory image or recollections of visual sensory images, and in each individual, the recollection of a visual sensory image
      [i1-1]In general, the recollection of the visual kind of sensory image (as if) with one eye or recollections of visual sensory images (as if) with one eye, and in each individual, the recollection of a visual sensory image (as if) with one eye
      [i1-2]In general, the recollection of the visual kind of sensory image (as if) with both eyes or recollections of visual sensory images (as if) with both eyes, and in each individual, the recollection of a visual sensory image (as if) with both eyes
    [i2]In general, the recollection of the auditory kind of sensory image or recollections of auditory sensory images, and in each individual, the recollection of an auditory sensory image
      [i2-1]In general, the recollection of the auditory kind of sensory image (as if) with one ear or recollections of auditory sensory images (as if) with one ear, and in each individual, the recollection of an auditory sensory image (as if) with one ear
      [i2-2]In general, the recollection of the auditory kind of sensory image (as if) with both ears or recollections of auditory sensory images (as if) with both ears, and in each individual, the recollection of an auditory sensory image (as if) with both ears
    [i3]In general, the recollection of the olfactory kind of sensory image or recollections of olfactory sensory images, and in each individual, the recollection of an olfactory sensory image
      [i3-1]In general, the recollection of the olfactory kind of sensory image (as if) with one nasal cavity or recollections of olfactory sensory images (as if) with one nasal cavity, and in each individual, the recollection of an olfactory sensory image (as if) with one nasal cavity
      [i3-2]In general, the recollection of the olfactory kind of sensory image (as if) with both nasal cavities or recollections of olfactory sensory images (as if) with both nasal cavities, and in each individual, the recollection of an olfactory sensory image (as if) with both nasal cavities
    [i4]In general, the recollection of the balancing kind of sensory image or recollections of balancing sensory images, and in each individual, the recollection of a balancing sensory image
    [i5]In general, the recollection of the taste kind of sensory image or recollections of taste sensory images, and in each individual, the recollection of a taste sensory image
    [i6]In general, the recollection of the somatic kind of sensory image or recollections of somatic sensory images, and in each individual, the recollection of a somatic sensory image
    [i7]In general, the recollections of autonomic kinds of sensory images or recollections of autonomic sensory images, in each individual, recollections of autonomic sensory images

    Some of them will be supplemented below.
    As was explained earlier, at the stage of things appearing as mental phenomena, things appearing on "complex" sensations was found. That is because the nervous functions which are premised to cause them are complex ones. They can be called "Complex Sensations." Above all, complex sensations which involve the excitements and transmissions of both autonomic nerves and sensory nerves in a narrow sense can be recognized. For example, palpitation and nausea are so. However, the complex sensations which involve some autonomic nerves' excitements and transmissions are also called Autonomic Kinds of Sensations or Autonomic Sensations in these books, and the plural forms of those nouns is used even in the nervous system of an individual. That is because when a sensation contains a few autonomic nerves' excitements and transmissions, it can directly affects some feelings, desires, or egos which will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS."
    [s1]-[s7] are sensations which are basic to vertebrates including human beings. In animals excluding vertebrates, the distinction between [s6]somatic sensations and [s7]autonomic sensations is vague. It is in terrestrial vertebrates that [s2]auditory sensations and [s3]olfactory sensations have been developed. That is because auditory sensations and olfactory sensations mainly respond to sound waves and chemicals respectively which spread in the air. There can be some other kinds of sensations. For example, some reptiles have a kind of sensation which uses infrared rays, and some dolphins or whales have a kind of sensation which uses supersonic waves. The explanations of such special sensations will be omitted in these books.
    Sensations excluding visual ones and auditory ones are "Pleasure or Displeasure Sensations" which are premised to cause things appearing on pleasure or displeasure sensations. In the phylogenesis, ontogenesis, and aging of sensations, somatic, autonomic, taste, and olfactory ones precede and survive the others. Therefore every animal having some sensations has some pleasure or displeasure sensations.
    Recollections of sensory images get clear in some mammals, above all, in human beings.
    Though the word "recollection" often designates remembering some past events in our daily lives, it designates a nervous function causing images of not only past things but also present things, future things, and unreal things in these books.
    Though the neuronal function which is premised to cause things appearing as complex images will be explained in detail in the chapter "MEMORIES," it is called Recollections of Complex Images or Recollections of Images.

PERCEPTIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS

The neuronal functions which are premised to cause things appearing on perceptions or things appearing on associations can be called Perceptions or Associations. The former consist of some sensations, some recollections of sensory images, and some functions among them, and the latter consist of some recollections of sensory images and some functions among them. Those functions among them are the recognitions, generations, memorizations, storages, arousals, recollections of individual images' sources, the excitements and transmissions of the neuronal ways among individual images' sources, and so on which will be explained in the chapter of "MEMORIES."

THE INDIVIDUALITY OF SENSATIONS, RECOLLECTIONS, AND MENTAL FUNCTIONS

By definition, bodies of individuals of animals are separated from each other, so are their nervous systems, and no animals' neuronal groups join to, transmits to, are joined to by, or are transmitted to by any others'. Therefore it is premised that nothing appearing to any others appears to me. For example, though your face is appearing to me on my visual sensation, my face appearing to you on your visual sensation never appears to me. However, two animals' bodies which are to be two individuals are exceptionally born with them agglutinated in periphery. In those cases, their peripheral nervous system are sometimes intermingled, too. As a result, pain, hotness, and so on appearing to one of them on a somatic sensation or autonomic sensations sometimes appear to another, too. However, no central nervous systems are intermingled, or none of those which are intermingled function, or the animals where some of them are intermingled die before their birth. Therefore, as far as the animals on the earth so far are concerned, it has never happened that no images appearing to some individuals appear to others, and that some individuals thinks what others thinks. Again, it has never happened as far as the animals including human beings on the earth so far are concerned. That is, it is not absolutely true that "the things appearing to you never appear to me, and the things appearing to me never appear to you."

THE SAME KIND OF CONTINUOUS SENSATION AND MEMORY = EACH KIND OF CONTINUOUS SENSATION AND MEMORY

    Visual sensory images resemble things appearing on visual sensations in things appearing on the visual kind of sensation and sensory image, auditory sensory images resemble things appearing on auditory sensations in the auditory kind of sensation and sensory image, and the same applies to olfactory sensory images, balancing sensory images, and so forth. In such a way, the kinds like the visual kind, the auditory kind, and so on were recognized at the stage of things appearing as mental phenomena.
    Moreover, because of the similarity of a sensory image to things appearing on the same kind of sensation, we can guess that between

(1) a kind of sensation

and

(3) the recollection of the same kind of sensory image

there are

(2) some neuronal groups and their functions which are caused or changed by (1) and which cause or change (3),

and that (1)(2)(3) compose a small nervous system in the nervous system of an individual, and (1)(2)(3) are a continuous function. While (1)(3) cause something appearing directly, (2) do not do so directly. (2) can be called a "Kind of Latent Memory" or Latent Memories in general, and in particular, the Visual Kind of Latent Memory or Visual Latent Memories, the Auditory Kind of Latent Memory or Auditory Latent Memories, or so. (2)(3) can be called a Kind of Memory or Memories in general, and in particular, the Visual Kind of Memory or Visual Memories, the Auditory Kind of Memory or Auditory Memories, or the so. (1)(2)(3) can be called the Same Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Memory or Each Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Memory or a Continuous Sensation and Memory in general, and in particular, the Visual Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Memory or Visual (Continuous) Sensation and Memories, the Auditory Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Memory or Auditory (Continuous) Sensation and Memory, or so.
    Moreover, in each kind of continuous sensation and memory, there exist and function its own source, replay, and processing functions in a narrow sense which will be explained later. For example, there are visual source, visual replay, and visual processing functions in a narrow sense in the visual kind of continuous sensation and memory.
    Of course, the details of memories will be explained in the chapter "MEMORIES." In addition, not only each kind of memory but also the integration of different kinds of memories will be explained in it.

SOURCES OF THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

    Everything appearing as a mental phenomenon is premised to be caused by making something in itself a source. Something in itself which is premised to cause an appearing thing as a mental phenomenon as a source can be called the "Source" of the thing appearing as a mental phenomenon. In addition, in general, the source of things appearing on a sensation can be called the Sensation's Source, and in particular, a visual sensation's source, an auditory sensation's source, or so. In addition, the source of things appearing as a sensory image, a thing appearing as an individual image, a thing appearing as a complex image, or so can be called the sensory Image's Source, the individual image's Source, the Complex Image's Source, or so. For example, the source of things appearing on a visual sensation, that is, a visual sensation's source is the photons which reach the retinae, the material things and their functions which reflect, permeate, and refract the photons reaching the retinae, the neuronal group's excitement and transmission from the retinae to optic nerves to visual areas on occipital lobes, and so on. Moreover, the source of a thing appearing as a mental phenomenon is also called the "Thing" in these books. That is, the word "things" sometimes designate the sources of things appearing as mental phenomena in these books.
    The source of a thing appearing (as a mental phenomenon) can be divided into two parts of that in the nervous system and that out of it. The part of the source of an appearing thing which is in the nervous system can be called the "Neuronal Source" of the appearing thing. For example, the neuronal group's excitement and transmission from the retinae to optic nerves to visual areas on occipital lobes, and so on is the neuronal source of things appearing on a visual sensation.
    A neuronal source is either a neuronal group's excitement and transmission or activation and activity. The details will be explained later.
    Anyway, some neuronal groups need to be generated and to exist so that their excitements and transmissions, activities, and so on can function. The functioning of some neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions or activations and activities as a neuronal source can be called the neuronal source's "Going," Coming, or Flowing through the neuronal groups. The following are the examples of the neuronal groups which some neuronal sources go through: in a visual sensation, the neuronal group from the retinae to optic nerves, crossing, to visual areas on occipital lobes; in an auditory sensation, the neuronal group from the inner ears to acoustic nerves, not crossing, to auditory areas on the temporal lobes; in a somatic sensation, the neuronal group from the skins, bones, striated muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints to sensory nerves in a narrow sense, crossing, to sensory areas in a narrow sense on parietal lobes.
    When the neuronal group which some neuronal sources go through diverges or converges, the neuronal sources can diverge or converge, too. When they diverge, one neuronal source can cause more than one identical one. When they converge, some of them can go through and the others can disappear. In addition, when the neuronal group which some neuronal sources go through has a disorder, at least a part of it can disappear. For example, when the optic nerves are pressed by a pituitary tumor, it can cause visual field defect.
    The sensory group's part of a neuronal source can be called the "Sensory Group's Source," and it is different from sensations' sources which were defined earlier. Sensory groups' sources are included in sensations' neuronal sources. The following are the examples of some sensory groups' sources: in a visual sensation's source, the sensory group's excitement and transmission in the retinae; in an auditory sensation's source, that in the inner ears; in a somatic sensation's source; the excitements and transmissions of sensory cells in a narrow sense in the skins, bones, striated muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints.
    The part of a source out of the nervous system can be called the "Material and Bodily Source." The following are examples of material and bodily sources: in a visual sensation's source, light sources→photons→material things' reflectance, transmittance, and index of refraction→photons; in an auditory sensation's source, sound sources→the frequency and amplitude of their vibration→sound waves; in a somatic sensation's source, pressure to, heat to, and inflammation in the skins, bones, striated muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints.
    In such ways, some material and bodily sources includes the situations like inflammation within the body. Moreover, for example, an autonomic sensation's source includes the blood concentration of oxygen, that of glucose, and osmotic pressures. They are premised to cause dyspnea, hunger, and thirst respectively, which are vital for the existence of animals including human beings.
    It is premised that a part of a source is represented as some things appearing as mental phenomena and that the other part is not. For example 1, usually, no neuronal sources are represented as any things appearing on sensations. Simply, I have never seen my brain or nerves directly. Though I sometimes have a slight headache, what is represented as it is the stretch or vibration of the blood vessels, and it is not a neuronal source but a part of the material and bodily source. For example 2, concerning material and bodily sources, unless I look at the sun directly, it is not seen. In such a way, we rarely see light sources in the daytime. In contrast, usually, material things' reflectance, transmittance, and index of refraction are premised to be represented as some things appearing on visual sensations, the frequency and amplitude of material things' vibration are premised to be represented as some things appearing on auditory sensations, and skins' inflammation are premised to be represented as some things appearing on somatic sensations. The part of a source which are premised to be represented as some things appearing as mental phenomena can be called the "Reproducible Part" of the source. For example, usually, material things' reflectance, transmittance, and index of refraction are the reproducible part of visual sensations' sources, the frequency and amplitude of material things' vibration are auditory sensations' reproducible part, and pressure to, heat to, and inflammation in the skins, bones, striated muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints are somatic sensations' reproducible part.

THE SAME KIND OF CONTINUOUS SENSATION AND IMAGE'S SOURCE = EACH KIND OF CONTINUOUS SENSATION AND IMAGE'S SOURCE

As will be explained in the chapter "MEMORIES," in each kind of sensation and memory, the properties which some parts of the sensation's source have are recognized, and those parts are cut out and are generated as individual images' sources. Thereafter individual images' sources constitute complex images' sources. Thereafter complex images' sources are recollected as the sensory image's source. Therefore, after all, sensation's source and images' sources are continuous ones in each kind of sensation and memory. For example, in the visual kind of sensation and memory, the visual sensation's source and the visual images' sources are a continuous one, and in the auditory kind of sensation and memory, the auditory sensation's source and the auditory images' sources are a continuous one. Therefore, in things appearing on each kind of sensation and sensory image, images are similar to things appearing on the same kind of sensation though the former are not as clear as the latter are. For example, a person's face appearing as a visual image is similar to the person's face appeared on a visual sensation in the past. The sensation's source and the images sources which are a continuous one in such ways in the same kind of sensation and memory can be called the "Same Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Image's Source," Each Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Image's Source, or a (Continuous) Sensation and Image's Source in general, and in particular, the Visual Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Image's Source, the Auditory Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Image's Source, or so.

THINGS RETAINED BY NEURONAL SOURCES AND WAYS TO RETAIN THEM

(1) NEURONAL GROUPS RETAINING SPATIAL POSITIONS' EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS

    In (1) a neuronal groups retaining spatial positions' excitement and transmission, which was explained earlier, the spatial relative positions, the spatial arrangements, and the densities of series of neurons actually joining's excitements and transmissions are retained. As a result, the spatial relative positions and the spatial arrangements and the quantities of sources are retained.
    Concretely, the "shapes" or "forms" of things are retained in (1). Otherwise, for example, some things appearing on visual sensations would be distorted, and a ball would look like an amoeba.
    In addition, quantities like brightness of light, loudness of sound, and intensity of pain are converted into the densities of neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions by sensory groups, those densities are retained in (1). In (1), some series of neurons actually joining excite and transmit, and the others do not. Therefore there can be densities and quantities. One neuron in itself, which either excites and transmits or stops, cannot represent density or quantity. When neurons gather and compose a neuronal group retaining spatial relative positions, they can represent and retain densities and quantities.

(2) NEURONAL GROUPS EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS RETAINING TEMPORAL RELATIVE POSITIONS

    In (2) a neuronal group's (instant) excitement and transmission retaining temporal relative positions which was explained earlier, the temporal change and the frequencies of the neurons' excitements and transmissions are retained. As a result, the temporal change and qualities of sources are retained.
    Otherwise, for example, a rapidly moving object appearing on a visual sensation would be distorted.
    In addition, the qualities like colors and high-law of sounds of material and bodily sources are converted into the frequencies of neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions by sensory groups, and such frequencies are retained in (2). For example, the neuron which was transmitted by a sensory cell which excited and transmitted at 100Hz excite and transmit at 100Hz. As a result, all the neurons belonging to a series of neurons actually joining excite and transmit at 100Hz. Thereafter, replays reconvert such frequencies into the qualities like color and high-law of sounds.

(3) SENSORY GROUPS' CONVERSION OF MATERIAL AND BODILY SOURCES INTO NEURONAL SOURCES

    In the first part of a sensation's neuronal source, some functions of the sensory group convert the material and bodily source's qualities like waves' frequencies into the frequencies of neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions and convert its quantities like waves' amplitudes into the concentrations of neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions. Such conversion can be called a Sensory Group's "Conversion" of a material and bodily source into a neuronal source or Converting a material and bodily source into a neuronal source. For example, in the first part of a visual sensation's neuronal source, the sensory group in the retinae convert colors into the frequencies of neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions and converts brightness into their concentrations.
    If it were not for such conversion by sensory groups, no neuronal sources could function. When we take it into account, we found that sensory groups are vital for sensations.

(4) THE ACTIVATIONS AND ACTIVITIES AND EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS OF NEURONAL GROUPS SELECTIVE AND SPECIALIZED CONCERNING FREQUENCY

    Only when transmitted to at a certain frequency, some neurons excite and transmit with that frequency, are activated, retain the activities, and will excite and transmit at that frequency next time they are transmitted to at that frequency. Such neurons can be called "Neurons Selective and Specialized (concerning a Certain Frequency)." In addition, a neuronal group which consists of neurons selective and specialized concerning various frequencies can be called a Neuronal Group Selective and Specialized (concerning Frequency).
    As will be explained in the chapter "MEMORIES," some images' sources need to be memorized and stored so that they can be recollected after a while. First, the neuronal groups memorizing and storing images' sources need to be those which can be acquiredly activated. Second, in order for qualities as frequencies to be memorized and stored and retained, those neuronal groups need to be neuronal groups selective and specialized concerning frequency.
    Individual images' sources can be memorized and stored and recollected in the above ways. In contrast, complex images' sources can be recollected in the following ways.

(5) THE ACTIVATIONS AND ACTIVITIES AND EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS OF THE NEURONAL WAYS AMONG NEURONAL GROUPS MEMORIZING AND STORING INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES

    In order for complex images' sources to be recollected, a lot of individual images' sources need to be recollected spatially and temporally close, and to compose them. In order for individual images to do so, there need to be a lot of neuronal ways directly or indirectly among neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources, they need to be activated, and the activities need to be retained for a while. Thereafter when some of the neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources or some of the neuronal ways among them excite and transmit, some other ways or groups excite and transmit, the same are repeated, a lot of individual images' sources are recollected spatially and temporally close, and they compose complex images' sources.
    In each kind of memory, the neuronal source just sensed or just recollected goes through a neuronal group diverging one after another, some properties which some parts of that neuronal source have are recognized, and those parts are generated or renewed and memorized and stored as individual images' sources. Such a neuronal group diverging one after another can be called Each Kind of Memorial Neuronal Group Diverging (One After Another). In such a neuronal group, there are some neuronal groups selective and specialized concerning frequency which were explained in the above section, and they store individual images' sources. In such a neuronal group, the more similar individual images' sources are, the closer they are memorized and stored, and after all, they are classified on the basis of similarity.
    After those are repeated and when some properties which some parts of the neuronal source just sensed or just recollected have are recognized, the following part of such neuronal group or some neuronal ways paralleling it excite and transmit, those excitements and transmissions causes those of neuronal groups memorizing and storing similar individual images' sources. After all, similar individual images' sources can arise and be recollected spatially and temporarily close, and they can compose a complex image's source. This can be called Arousals or Recollections of Individual Images Sources on the Basis of Similarity. For example, when a particular human being is recognized, a lot of individual images' sources of particular human beings are recollected on the basis of similarity, they can compose a complex image's source of general human beings, and that particular person is recognized as a general human being. In such a way, first, individual images' sources' arousals on the basis of similarity compose complex images' sources. The part from recognitions to neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources of each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another or some neuronal ways paralleling it can be called "Neuronal Ways among Individual Images' Sources on the Basis of Similarity." These neuronal ways are activated innately (by genes) to a degree, and are activated more by individual images' sources' recognitions, generations, or renewals.
    Such neuronal ways do exist and function only in or along each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another and do not exist or function among different kinds of them. Therefore, through them, only the same kind of individual image's source's can arise and be recollected, and different kinds of them cannot. When this needs to be emphasized, they can be called Neuronal Ways among "the Same Kind of" Individual Images' Sources' on the Basis of Similarity or Neuronal Ways among "Each Kind of" Individual Image's Source on the Basis of Similarity, and the arousals or recollections through them can be called Arousals or Recollections of the Same Kind of Individual Image's Source on the Basis of Similarity or Arousals or Recollections of Each Kind of Individual Images Sources on the Basis of Similarity.
    Second, there are a lot of neuronal ways among the same kind of and different kinds of memorial neuronal groups diverging or neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources in them. However, such neuronal ways are not activated innately (by genes). They are activated acquiredly on the basis of temporal closeness. A little more closely, the neuronal ways among the neuronal groups or ways in or through where some individual images' sources generated or renewed temporarily close are memorized and stored or do go are activated. Such neuronal ways can be called "Neuronal Ways among Individual Images' Sources on the Basis of Temporal Closeness." While those are repeated, when some individual images' sources arise, those activated neuronal ways excite and transmit, and the individual images' sources which were generated or renewed temporally close to them arise. In such a way, individual images' sources which were generated or renewed temporarily close arise and can be recollected temporarily close, and can compose a complex image's source. This can be called Arousals or Recollections of Individual Images' Sources on the Basis of Temporal Closeness.
    Some temporarily close things are cause and effect, and through them cause and effect can be recollected as complex images or associated. For example, when a child's mother are one of those who hit their children when they are angry, in the nervous system of the child, the neuronal ways between the neuronal groups memorizing and storing the individual images' sources of its mother's furious face and neuronal groups memorizing and storing the individual images' sources of being hit are activated. After those are repeated and when the child perceive the mother's furious face, being hit is recollected or associated. In such a way, complex images' sources can be recollected not only on the basis of similarity but also on that of temporal closeness.
    Neuronal ways on the basis of temporal closeness are among not only the same kind but also different kinds of individual images' sources. Therefore, through them, different kinds of individual images' sources arise and can be recollected, and can compose complex images consisting of different kinds of individual images. When this needs to be emphasized, they can be called Neuronal Ways among "the Same Kind of and Different Kinds of" Individual Images' Sources on the Basis of Temporal Closeness, and arousals or recollections through them can be called Arousals or Recollections of the Same Kind of and Different Kinds of Individual Images' Sources on the Basis of Temporal Closeness. For example, the individual visual images of the mother's furious face and the individual auditory images of her furious voice are recollected temporarily close, and they compose the complex image of the furious mother. In addition, all neuronal ways on the basis of temporal closeness are activated acquiredly, and they make the difference among individuals clear. Therefore, for perceptions, associations, thinkings, and so on, those on the basis of temporal closeness are more significant than those on the basis of similarity.
    Two kinds of neuronal ways which were explained in this section, that is, those on the basis of similarity and those on that of temporal closeness can be called "Neuronal Ways among Individual Images' Sources" or "Image to Image Neuronal Ways." After all, the main part of complex images' sources are activations and activities and excitements and transmissions of neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources and of the neuronal ways among them. Mainly by them, the same kind of and the different kinds of a lot of individual images' sources can be recollected spatially and temporarily close, and compose a complex image.
    By the way, there are image to image neuronal ways (neuronal ways among individual images' sources), image to function neuronal ways, function to function neuronal ways, and image to emotion neuronal ways as significant neuronal ways in these books, and they need to be clearly distinguished.

(6)THE CONSISTENCY OF THE SAME KIND OF SOURCE

    In each kind of continuous sensation and memory, all the neuronal sources are a continuous one. Each kind of continuous sensation and image's source is a neuronal group retaining spatial relative positions' excitement and transmission retaining temporal relative position (1)(2). Therefore, in it, the neuronal source's qualities as frequencies, quantities as concentrations, spatial and temporal positions, spatial and temporal arrangements, and their changes are consistently retained. Such retention can be called the "Consistency of the Same Kind of Source."

(7)THE CONSISTENCY OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF SOURCES

    In things appearing on sensations, things appearing on different kinds of sensations appear spatially and temporally close. For example, another person's mouth appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes and his or her spoken words appearing on an auditory sensation with both ears appear spatially and temporally very close. Simply, his or her spoken words come from his or her mouth. In things appearing on a perception, some things appearing on a kind of sensation and different kinds of images appear spatially and temporally close. For example, another person's face appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes and his or her name appearing as auditory images (as if) with both ears appear spatially and temporally close. In a complex image, different kinds of individual images appear spatially and temporally close. For example, another person's face appearing as individual visual images (as if) with both eyes and his or her spoken words appearing as individual auditory images (as if) with both ears appear spatially and temporally close. Such retention can be called the "Consistency of Different Kinds of Sources." It is premised that such consistency is caused by different kinds of sensation and image sources' meeting or paralleling somewhere in the central nervous system, perhaps in the parietal lobes.
    The consistency of the same kind of sources and that of different kinds of sources can be called the Consistency of Sources.

(8)SYMMETRICAL PAIRS OF NEURONAL SOURCES

    The nervous systems of most species of animals are symmetrical pairs. Moreover, in such a larger pair, there is a neuronal group causing each kind of sensation and memory, and it is a symmetrical pair. Moreover, in such a pair, there exist and function each kind of sensation and image's source, and it is a symmetrical pair. Though it diverges and converges, that diverging and converging part is also a symmetrical pair. Things appearing beyond sensory organs like things appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes and things appearing on an auditory sensation with both ears are stereoscopic and beyond their own sensory organs. It is premised that a symmetrical pair of neuronal sources, their replay, and their treating functions, the last two of which will be explained later, cause things appearing beyond sensory organs.
    Some symmetrical pairs of neuronal sources cross and the others do not. However, even those crossing parts are symmetrical pairs.

REPLAYS OF SOURCES

    Some nervous functions which treat and change a neuronal source into things appearing as mental phenomena can be called the "Replay" of the source or Replaying the source. However, replays are the hardest or impossible to make clear. The border between sources and replays is vague, and they overlap. It is possible that some replays begin with some sensory cells' excitements and transmissions. Moreover, it is possible that the excitements and transmissions of neurunal groups including sensory groups in themselves are replays.
    As was explained earlier, each kind of continuous sensation and memory has its own kind of continuous sensation and image's source. Concerning replays, things are a little different. Not only, each kind of sensation and memory have its own kind of replay but also even in the kind of sensation and memory, the sensation has its own replay of the sensation's source, and the memory has its own replay of the sensory image's source. That is, the replay of the sensation's source and that of the sensory image's source are distinct, and are not a continuous function. For example, in the visual kind of sensation and memory, the visual sensation has the replay of the visual sensation's source, and the visual memory has that of the visual sensory image's source.
    However, in each kind of sensation and memory, presumably, the replay of the sensation's source and that of the sensory image's source are not the same but alike, and are not in the same place but in close places. For example, in the visual kind of sensation and memory, presumably, the replay of the visual sensation's source and that of the visual sensory image's source are alike and in close places. For example, though extreme, it is possible, because of the disorders of some nervous functions, that visual hallucination is caused when some visual images' sources which usually reach the replay of visual image's source reaches that of the visual sensation's source which is similar and close to it, and that auditory hallucination is caused when some auditory images' sources which usually reach the replay of auditory image's source reaches that of auditory sensation's source which is similar and close to it.

PROCESSING FUNCTIONS OF SOURCES

    Some functions which process a neuronal source in some ways other than replays can be called the "Processing Functions" of the source or Functions Processing the source.
    Things appearing beyond sensory organs like things appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes, things appearing on an auditory sensation with both ears, and things appearing on an olfactory sensation with both nasal cavities, are each stereoscopic and beyond their sensory organs, and some nervous functions which make them so are a processing function of a sensation's source. Though things appearing on an olfactory sensation with both nasal cavities' being stereoscopic and beyond both nasal cavities are vague in human beings, it must be clearer in some other species of mammals like dogs, cats, and so on. Human olfactory sensations were more clear once upon a time, and they may have degenerated.
    After all, it is premised that symmetrical pairs of neuronal groups' excitement and transmission as neuronal sources, the functions processing the pairs, and the replays of the pairs cause things appearing beyond sensory organs.

REPRODUCIBLE SPACES, SENSATIONS' FIELDS AND IMAGES' FIELDS

    As was defined earlier, the part of a source which is premised to be represented as some things appearing as mental phenomena could be called the Reproducible Part of the source. Moreover, the space of the reproducible part of a source can be called the Reproducible Space of the source. The whole of the reproducible space of the source of a visual sensation with both eyes is what is called the "visual field." The whole of the reproducible space of a sensation's source can be called the "Sensation's Field" in general, and, in particular, a Visual (Sensation's) field, an Auditory (Sensation's) field, or the like. In addition, the whole of the reproducible space of a sensory image's source can be called the "(Sensory) Image's Field" in general, and in particular, a visual (sensory) image's field, an auditory (sensory) image's field, or the like.
    The following are the examples of the width and depth of human sensations' fields.

○Visual field with both eyes
    The space of about 180°ahead, light-years.

○Auditory field with both ears
    The space of 360° around, kilometers.

○Olfactory field with both nasal cavities
    The space of 360° around, meters.

○Balancing field
    The space of the head.

○Taste field
    The space of the tongue.

○Somatic field
    The space of the skins, bones, striated muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints.

○Autonomic field
    The space of the mucous membranes, cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and so on.

OVERLAPS OF REPRODUCIBLE SPACES

First, in things appearing on each kind of sensation and sensory image, the reproducible space of the things appearing on the sensation and that of the sensory image overlap in most of their parts. For example, when I see a person for the first time in years and when I think that he or she has grown a little older, in things appearing on the visual kind of sensation and sensory image, his or her present face appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes and his or her face which appeared years ago appearing as a visual sensory image (as if) with both eyes overlap. In such a way, I find his or her aging. Such overlap is caused by the consistency of the same kind of sources which was explained earlier.
Moreover, between the different kinds of appearing things, some reproducible spaces overlaps. For example, birds' chirps appearing on an auditory sensation with both ears appear from the space of the forest appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes. Such overlap is caused by the consistency of different kinds of sources which was explained earlier.

SENSATIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS OF SENSORY IMAGES ON SENSORY ORGANS

In each of [s1-1] visual sensations with one eye, [s2-1] auditory sensations with one ear, [s3-1] olfactory sensations with one nasal cavity, [s4] balancing sensations, [s5] taste sensations, [s6] somatic sensations, [s7] autonomic sensations, [i1-1] recollections of visual sensory Images (as if) with one eye, [i2-1] recollections of auditory sensory images (as if) with one ear, [i3-1] recollections of olfactory sensory images (as if) with one nasal cavity, [i4] recollections of balancing sensory images, [i5] recollections of taste sensory images, [i6] recollections of somatic sensory images, and [i7] recollections of autonomic sensory images, its reproducible space is the same as the space where its own sensory group exists and functions. [s1-1]-[s7] could be called Sensations "on Sensory Organs," and [i1-1]-[i7] can be called Recollections of Sensory Images (as if) on a Sensory Organ.

SENSATIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS OF SENSORY IMAGES BEYOND SENSORY ORGANS

In each of [s1-2] visual sensations with both eyes, [s2-2] auditory sensations with both ears, [s3-2] olfactory sensations with both nasal cavities, [i1-2] recollections of visual sensory images (as if) with both eyes, [i2-2] recollections of auditory sensory images (as if) with both ears, and [i3-2] recollections of olfactory sensory images (as if) with both nasal cavities, its reproducible space is not the same as the space where its own sensory group exists and functions, and its appearing things are stereoscopic and beyond its own sensory group's source's space. [s1-2]-[s3-2] can be called Sensations "Beyond Sensory Organs," and [i1-2]-[i3-2] can be called Recollections of Sensory Images (as if) Beyond Sensory Organs.
The substance of each of those sensations is a symmetrical pair of neuronal sources, the nervous functions processing the pair, and the replay of the pair.

SOURCES' BEING SENSED AND BEING RECOLLECTED AS IMAGES

    A sensation source's being replayed can be called its "Being Sensed." A sensory image's source's being replayed, an individual image's source's being replayed, or a complex image's source's being replayed can be called its "Being Recollected" (as the Sensory Image, as the Individual Image, as the Complex Image, or as the Image) or its Being Recollected as Images. In addition, a perception's source's being replayed can be called its "Being Perceived," and an association's source's being replayed can be called its "Being Associated."
    As was explained earlier, it is probable that neuronal sources and replays overlap. Whether or not they overlap, replays and the sources which are being replayed are premised to directly cause things appearing as mental phenomena. Therefore it is premised that things appearing on sensations are caused whenever and as soon as their sources are sensed, and that things appearing as images are caused whenever and as soon as their sources are recollected.
    The neuronal sources which have been being sensed for milliseconds (thousandths of a second) can be called "Sources Just Sensed," and the same can apply to Sources Just Recollected as Images. It is not sources which have not been sensed yet but sources just sensed that are recognized and do generate individual images' sources. In addition, as will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS," some sources just recollected as images cause the excitements and transmissions of some image to emotion neuronal ways, and cause some feelings, desires, egos, and so on. As will be explained later, reflexes are caused by sources which have not been sensed yet.
    By the way, images' sources are also called Images in these books. That is, the word of images sometimes designates their sources in these books.
    That the source which is premised to cause a thing appearing on a sensation intensely or faintly is sensed can be called its Being Sensed Intensely or Faintly, and that the source which is premised to cause a thing appearing as an image intensely or faintly is recollected can be called its Being Recollected (as an Image) Intensely or Faintly. A neuronal source whose concentration, resolution, or extent is large or small can be sensed or recollected intensely or faintly. Though a sensation's source and the images' sources caused by it are a continuous one, their intensities are not always interrelated. For example, sometimes, a person who was seen in the far distance is recollected dead ahead, and some spoken words which were whispered are recollected in a loud voice.

FLOWS OF SOURCES

    Neuronal sources are neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions or activations and activities which retain such things as were explained earlier in such ways as were explained earlier. Those excitements and transmissions can be looked upon as neuronal sources' going, coming, or flowing through neuronal groups. Those activations and activities are their being memorized and stored and can be looked upon as their lurking or stagnating. In addition, neuronal sources sometimes disappear when those neuronal groups have some disorders. In addition, when those neuronal groups converge, some of the sources go through, and the others disappear. When they diverge, one neuronal source sometimes generates more than one identical one. In addition, some neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions which can no longer be called neuronal sources diverge from some neuronal sources. In addition, in each kind of continuous sensation and memory, the images' sources are generated from the sensation's source, and they are continuous one. Such a continuous source could be called the same kind of (continuous) sensation and image's source, each kind of (continuous) sensation and image's source, or a continuous sensation and image's source.
    In the flow of such a neuronal source, the following (1)(2)(3)(4)(5) can be distinguished.

(1) The part of a neuronal source which has not been sensed yet
(2) That which is being sensed, that is, being replayed
(3) That which has already been sensed and has not been recollected yet
(4) That which is being recollected, that is, being replayed.
(5) That which has already been recollected

(1)(2) is a sensation' s source. (3)(4)(5) will be explained closely in the following chapter. (5) causes feelings, desires, egos, and so on which will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS."
    Anyway, the time of (1)(2)(4)(5) is milliseconds, and that of (3) is from milliseconds to tens of years. That is because (3) can be memorized and stored in such ways as will be explained in the following chapter.
    The following will not be explained in the following chapter. Some neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions which can no longer be called neuronal sources diverge from (1) and cause some reflexive, instinctive, or autonomic functions. Concerning reflexes, for example, a sensory nerve in a narrow sense diverge and join to a motor nerve, and their excitements and transmissions cause tendon reflex. Concerning autonomic functions, from the beginning, autonomic nerves diverge wildly. Sensory nerves in a broad sense belonging to the autonomic system diverge wildly, too, and their excitements and transmissions cause various autonomic functions like the increase or decrease of heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, and so on. Here, the distinction between (1) and (2) is not only impossible but also insignificant, so is it concerning instinctive functions.

RECOGNITIONS AND INSTINCTIVE FUNCTIONS

Some properties which some parts of some sensations' sources have are recognized. Such recognition, before causing memories, recollections of images, perceptions, associations, and recognitions in a broad sense, causes some instinctive functions. For example 1, in the newborns of mammals including human beings, mothers' nipples are recognized on olfactory, taste, and somatic sensations, and this recognition cause the instinctive function of sucking milk. For example 2, in a lot of animals, natural enemies are recognized on visual, auditory, and olfactory sensations, and this recognition causes the instinctive functions of running away, hiding, and so on. It is certain that such linkage of recognitions and instinctive functions is caused through some neuronal groups or ways distinct from the memorial neuronal groups explained later.

MEMORIES

EACH KIND OF MEMORY

    As will be explained in this chapter, in each kind of sensation and memory, some properties or attributes of the neuronal source just sensed are recognized, the part of that neuronal source which have those properties are cut and generated as an individual image' s source. Moreover, a lot of individual images' sources compose a complex image's source and a sensory image's source. Therefore, in each kind of sensation and memory, the sensation's neuronal source and the images' neuronal sources are continuous one. Such a continuous neuronal source can be called Each Kind of (Continuous) sensation and sensory image's source in general, and in particular, (the Visual Kind of) (Continuous) (Visual) Sensation and Sensory Image's Source, (the Auditory Kind of) (Continuous) (Auditory) Sensation and Sensory Image's Source, or so.
    However, more strictly, they can be defined as follows. There are some continuous neuronal sources in a nervous system and its functions. Each of those sources can be called Each Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Sensory Image's Source in general, and in particular... Moreover, each of those sources and the functions dealing with it can be called Each Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Memory in general, and in particular, (the Visual Kind of) (Visual) Sensation and Memory, (the Auditory Kind of) (Auditory) Sensation and Memory, or so. Moreover, out of the functions dealing with each of those continuous neuronal sources, those dealing with the part following the part just recollected can be called Each Kind of Memory in general, and in particular, the Visual Kind of Memory or Visual Memory, the Auditory Kind of Memory or Auditory Memory, or so.
    However, there is a large difference in the degree of the development of each kind of memory depending on species of animals. In human beings, because they hear, speak, read, and write words, visual and auditory kinds of memories are developed very much, and the other kinds of memories are overwhelmed or replaced and hardly exist or function. Therefore most of the explanation in this chapter is that of visual and auditory kinds of memories. In other species, it is probable that some other kinds of memories are developed more than in human beings. Above all, it is probable that olfactory kinds of memories are developed in some species of terrestrial vertebrates. However, the explanation of such kinds of memories will be omitted in these books.
    Most of the functions which will be explained in this chapter are parts of each kind of memory and can be said to function in each kind of memory. A few functions can be said to function beyond each kind. Therefore, in this chapter, the words like "functioning in each kind of memory" are sometimes omitted.
    The following words of recognition, cut, generation, renewal, memorization, storage, arousal, recollection, and so on designate concrete and countable functions functioning in each kind of memory. For example, if a neuronal group diverges into a hundred small ones, there are a hundred or less of memorizations or storages. Therefore they are used as countable nouns in these books.

EACH KIND OF MEMORIAL NEURONAL GROUP DIVERGING ONE AFTER ANOTHER

In each kind of memory, some properties which some parts of the neuronal sources just sensed and just recollected have are recognized, and those parts are cut out and generated as individual images' sources. These functions are caused while they go through a neuronal group diverging one after another. Such a neuronal group can be called (Each Kind of) "Memorial Neuronal Group Diverging" (One after Another). Each kind of memory has one neuronal group diverging one after another. Though, strictly, there is one pair, a pair of neuronal groups is looked upon a neuronal group in these books.

INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES' RECOGNITIONS, CUTS, AND GENERATIONS

    In each kind of memory, not only that kind of sensation's source just sensed but also that kind of individual image's source just recollected go through that kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, and some properties which some parts of the source have are recognized. By these recognitions, not only individual images' sources' generations which will be explained in this section but also individual images' sources arousals on the basis of similarity which will be explained in one of the later sections are caused.
    In each kind of memory, while that kind of sensation's source just sensed and that kind of individual sensory image's source just recollected go through that kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, some properties like concentrations, frequencies, spatial arrangements, temporal arrangements, and their changes, and so on which some parts of the neuronal sources have are recognized by some nervous functions, and those parts are classified on the basis of similarity one after another. This can be called Individual Images' (Sources') "Recognition (in a Narrow Sense) and Classification," Recognition (in a Narrow Sense), Being Recognized and Classified, or Being Recognized. This recognition is that "in a narrow sense" in contrast to that in a broad sense explained earlier. For example 1, in the visual kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, the spatial arrangement of a jaw, a mouth, a nose, two eyes, two ears, and a head which the part of a mammal's face of the visual sensation's source has is recognized, and that part is classified as a mammal's face. Next, the proportion of the size of the head to that of some others, the density and distribution of hair, and so on are recognized, and that part is recognized and classified as the face of a human being, and the same are repeated with the classification more and more detailed. For example 2, in the auditory kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, the consonant of the first syllable of a word is recognized and classified, its vowel is recognized and classified, the consonant of the second is recognized and classified, and the same are repeated.
    In addition, in each kind of memory, while that kind of sensation's source just sensed and that kind of individual sensory image's source just recollected go through that kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, while some properties which some parts of the sources have are recognized, and while those parts are classified one after another, some of those parts are cut out by some nervous functions. This can be called the Individual Image's (Source's) "Cut" or Being Cut (Out). In the above examples, the part of that face or some of its pats are cut out of the other part of the body or the face, the bodies of other persons, and the background, and that word or some of its syllables are cut out of the other part of the sentence or the word and the background.
    Individual images' sources are generated by being recognized and cut out in such ways. In the above examples, that face or some of its parts and that word or some of its syllables are generated as individual images' sources. An individual image's source's recognition, classification, and cut can also be called the Individual Image's (Source's) Generation or Being Generated. An individual image's generation consists of its recognition, classification, and cut. In addition, the individual images sources which are being or has just been recognized, classified, and cut out can be called individual images' Sources Just Generated.
    More than one individual image's source can be generated from a sensation's source just sensed. For example 1, from the visual sensation's source of a particular person just sensed, more than one individual visual image's source of his or her face, body, hair, clothes, shoes can be generated. For example 2, from the auditory sensation's source of a sentence just sensed, more than one individual auditory image's source of words or syllables can be generated.

INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES' MEMORIZATIONS AND STORAGES

    Individual images' sources just generated are memorized and stored in the following way.
    There are some, actually, a lot of neuronal groups selective and specialized concerning frequency, which were explained earlier, in each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another which individual images' sources just generated go through. While each of them goes through, it activates a selective and specialized neuronal group. That is, each neuron in each source just generated which excites and transmits with a certain frequency activates a selective specialized neuron in a selective and specialized neuronal group which has the capability of being activated and exciting and transmitting with that frequency. This can be called the Individual Image's (Sources') "Memorization" or Being Memorized.
    While it is naturally decreased and increased by reactivation, the activity of the neuronal group selective and specialized concerning frequency where an individual image's source has been memorized is retained for a while. This can be called the Individual Image's (Source's) "Storage" or Being Stored.

INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES' RENEWALS

Every time the same properties which the same part of a sensation's source just sensed has or which the same individual image's source just recollected has are recognized, that part are generated, memorized, and stored as individual images' sources in the same way as was explained in the above sections, the neuronal groups memorizing and storing the same individual images sources are reactivated, and their activities are retained. This can be called the Individual Images' (Sources') "Renewals" or Being Renewed.
Because the activities of all neuronal groups are being reduced naturally with time, the activities of neuronal groups memorizing and storing the individual images' sources which are not renewed are reduced and disappear. That is, such individual images are "forgotten." In order for individual images' sources to be stored for practical use, they need to be timely renewed. When it needs to be emphasized, the words of their "being memorized and stored, and/or renewed," "being generated and/or renewed," and the like are used in these books. However, when such words are always used, sentences will be complicated. Therefore the word of renew, renewal, or the like will usually be omitted.

INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES' CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF SIMILARITY

In each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, individual images' sources are recognized, cut out, generated, memorized, and stored. As a result, the more similar sources are, the closer branch they go through and are memorized and stored in. This can be called Individual Images' (Sources') Classification or Being Classified on the Basis of Similarity. By this classification, similar images' sources can be recollected spatially and temporally close, and can compose a complex image. For example, in the visual kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, the individual images' sources of human beings are memorized and stored closer to one another than to those of other animals. Therefore the individual images' sources of human beings can be recollected spatially and temporally closer to one another than to those of other animals, they can compose a complex images of general human beings, and human beings are distinguished from other animals. Though we sometimes use "tree structures" when we classify things, their prototype has already existed and functioned in nervous systems.

EACH KIND OF MEMORIAL NEURONAL GROUP CONVERGING ON THE REPLAY

When the neuronal groups memorizing and storing some individual images' sources excite and transmit, those individual images' sources proceed to the replay. This is their arousals. However, while there are a lot of neuronal group memorizing and storing individual images' sources, there is one (pair of) replay in each kind of memory, and so the neuronal group from the former to the latter is a converging one. Therefore not all the individual images' sources arising reach the replay. Some of them sometimes disappear and are not replayed or recollected. Such neuronal group converging on the replay can be called (Each Kind of) Memorial Neuronal Group Converging (on the Replay). However, it and the same kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, explained earlier, can be looked upon as a neuronal group. Each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another and the same kind of memorial neuronal group converging on the replay can be called (Each Kind of) Memorial Neuronal Group (Diverging and Converging). After all, memorial neuronal groups diverge and converge.

AROUSALS OR RECOLLECTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES ON THE BASIS OF SIMILARITY

    As was explained earlier, in each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, some properties which some parts of the sensation's source just sensed and some parts of the individual images' sources just recollected have are recognized, individual images' sources are generated, memorized, and stored (or renewed). Moreover, those just generated not only are memorized and stored but also do arise and can be recollected instantly. Such instant recollections are an instant memory which will be explained later. However, not only those just generated but also those which were generated, memorized, and stored in the past and which are similar to them arise and can be recollected in the following way.
    In each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, the branches which an individual image's source just recognized and generated goes through, of course, excite and transmit. More precisely, those excitements and transmissions are themselves neuronal sources. Moreover, some of the other branches or the neuronal ways, too, which stretch from the branches which that individual image's source have gone through excite and transmit. As was explained earlier, the closer branches are, the more similar individual images' sources have gone through them and been memorized and stored along them. Therefore the excitements and transmissions of those close branches or neuronal ways cause those of the neuronal groups memorizing and storing some similar individual images' sources, and they arise and can be recollected. Therefore, after all, not only the individual images' sources just recognized and generated but also some of those which were generated, memorized, and stored in the past and which are similar to them arise and can be recollected. This can be called Arousals or Recollections of Individual Images(' Sources) "on the Basis of Similarity." For example, a particular human being is recognized, the individual images' sources of a lot of particular human beings arise on the basis of similarity, they compose a complex image's source of general human beings, and that particular human being is "recognized," in a broad sense, as a general human being.
    Moreover, a particular human being at the present is more similar to that human being in the past than to any other human beings. Therefore the recognition in a narrow sense of a particular human being causes the arousal or recollection of the individual images of that human being in the past and compose the complex image's source of that human being having trmporal extent, and that human being is recognized in a broad sense as that human being in a common sense. That is, what has temporal extent like human life, even if it is a particular thing, is not recollected as an individual image but recollected as a complex image or associated.
    In such a way, recollections of individual images on the basis of similarity make the "recognition" in a broad sense possible for the first time. Moreover they make it possible for us to recognize and think of general things in advance of particular things. For example, it is not that this or that particular tiger is dangerous, but that general tigers are so. If we always examined whether each individual is dangerous or not, we could not survive. In human beings, whether it is fortunate or unfortunate, such acquired recollections and recognitions of general things have been being developed, and innate recognition has been being degenerated.
    In such recollections of individual images on the basis of similarity, they are being recollected as complex images already. Therefore they can also be called Arousals or Recollections of Complex Images(' Sources) on the Basis of Similarity, too.

NEURONAL WAYS AMONG INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES ON THE BASIS OF SIMILARITY

In arousals of individual (or complex) images sources on the basis of similarity, the branches from recognitions to neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources of each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another or some neuronal ways paralleling it can be looked upon as indirect neuronal ways among individual images' sources. Therefore they can be called "Neuronal Ways among Individual Images(' Sources) on the Basis of Similarity."
In order for individual images' sources to be recognized, generated, and classified, they need to be activated to a degree innately. However, it is probable that their activities are increased when individual images' sources are generated or renewed.

ACQUIRED GENERATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES

In contrast, all neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources are acquiredly activated. The properties which some parts of the neuronal sources just sensed have are recognized and those parts are cut out and are generated as individual images' sources for the first time. Therefore all individual images' sources are acquiredly generated. The following description will be appropriate for the above:

the "contents" of memories are acquiredly generated or formed. In contrast, the "frames" of memories are formed innately by genes.

AROUSALS OR RECOLLECTIONS OF THE SAME KIND OF INDIVIDUAL IMAGE'S SOURCE ON THE BASIS OF SIMILARITY AND NEURONAL WAYS AMONG THE SAME KIND OF INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES ON THE BASIS OF SIMILARITY

Neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of similarity are only in or along each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging and cannot be between different kinds of them. When this needs to be emphasized, they can be called Neuronal Ways among the Same Kind of Individual Images(' Sources) on the Basis of Similarity or Neuronal Ways among Each Kind of Individual Images(' Sources) on the Basis of Similarity.
Therefore, in the arousals or recollections through them, only the same kind of individual image's source arises and can be recollected. When this need to be emphasized, they can be called Arousals or Recollections of the Same Kind of Individual Images(' Sources) on the Basis of Similarity or Arousals or Recollections of Each Kind of Individual Images(' Sources) on the Basis of Similarity.

AROUSALS OR RECOLLECTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL IMAGES SOURCES ON THE BASIS OF TEMPORAL CLOSENESS AND NEURONAL WAYS AMONG INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES ON THE BASIS OF TEMPORAL CLOSENESS

However, it is possible that there are some neuronal ways distinct from them among neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources or between different kinds of memorial neuronal groups. Not only among the branches of the same kind of memorial neuronal group diverging and converging, but also among the branches of different kinds of them, there are some, actually, many neuronal ways. They are entirely distinct from neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of similarity which were explained above. They are not activated innately but activated acquiredly on the basis of temporal closeness when some individual images' sources are generated and memorized temporally close. Next time some of those individual images' sources arise, those activated neuronal ways excite and transmit, some others arise, too. After all, some individual images' sources which were generated or renewed and memorized temporarily close in the past arise and can be recollected temporarily close. This can be called Arousals or Recollections of Individual (or Complex) Images(' Sources) on the Basis of "Temporal Closeness," and those neuronal ways can be called Neuronal Ways among Individual Images(' Sources) on the Basis of Temporal Closeness.

AROUSALS OR RECOLLECTIONS OF THE SAME KIND OF AND DIFFERENT KINDS OF INDIVIDUAL IMAGES SOURCES ON THE BASIS OF TEMPORAL CLOSENESS AND NEURONAL WAYS AMONG THE SAME KIND OF AND DIFFERENT KIND OF INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES ON THE BASIS OF TEMPORAL CLOSENESS

    Because neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of temporal closeness are not only among the same kind of but also between different kinds of memorial neuronal groups diverging and converging, not only the same kind but also different kinds of individual sensory images' sources arise and can be recollected, and a complex image's sources which consists of not only the same kind of but also different kinds of individual sensory images' sources arise and can be recollected through them. When this needs to be emphasized, such arousals or recollections can be called Arousals or Recollections of "the Same Kind of and Different Kinds" of Individual (or Complex) Images(' Sources) on the Basis of Temporal Closeness, and those neuronal ways can be called Neuronal Ways among the Same Kind of and Different Kinds of Individual Images(' sources) on the Basis of Temporal Closeness."
    For example, when a child's mother often gets angry and utter furious voice, in the child's nervous system, the neuronal ways on the basis of temporal closeness between the individual visual images' sources of the mother's furious face and the individual auditory images' sources of her furious voice are activated, and the child comes to anticipate her furious voice only when it perceives her furious face.
    Some of the things that are caused temporarily close are cause and effect. Without neuronal ways on the basis of temporal closeness, we could not think about cause and effect. However, before cause and effect, without them, we could not recognize even things having temporal extent.

IMAGE TO IMAGE NEURONAL WAYS

    Neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of similarity and neuronal ways among them on the basis of temporal closeness can be called Neuronal Ways among Individual Images Sources or Image to Image Neuronal Ways.
    By their activations and activities and excitements and transmissions and those of neuronal group memorizing and storing individual images' sources, individual images' sources arise and can be recollected spatially and temporally close on the basis of similarity and temporal closeness and can compose complete complex images.　If it were not for both those on the basis of similarity or those on the basis of temporal closeness, complex images would be otherworldly.
    By the way, a part of the spatial and temporal closeness of individual images' sources is retained by the consistency of sources explained earlier. For example, the arrangement of the ears, eyes, nose, mouth, and jaw of human faces is retained by the consistency of sources.

THE ACQUIRED GENERATION OF IMAGES

As was explained earlier, out of neuronal ways among individual images' sources, that is, image to image neuronal ways, those on the basis of similarity are, in principle, innately activated, and those on the basis of temporal closeness are acquiredly activated. In contrast, as was explained earlier, all neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources are acquiredly activated, and all individual images' sources are acquiredly generated. Though complex images' sources involve those on the basis of similarity which are innately activated, they can be looked upon as not the contents but the "frames" of memories. Therefore the following can be said. All images(' sources) including complex image and sensory images, which are composed of individual images are acquiredly generated or formed. All contents of memories are acquiredly generated. All that are formed innately by genes are the frames of memories.
Human being speak and write words and transmit ideas, that is, complicated and gigantic complex images in and beyond their generation. For example, none of Ptolemaic theory or Copernican theory, Creation or Darwinism, aristocracy or democracy, capitalism or communism, or the like can be generated in individuals in a generation. They are generated through discussions, lectures, readings, and so on by efficiently activating neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of temporal closeness which predecessors went though. In addition, though they develop somewhat by thinkings in each individual, without the activations and activities of those neuronal ways on the basis of temporal closeness, that development would disappear in seconds, and we would rethink them every time they disappear. Therefore it is no exaggeration to say that the activations and activities of the neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of temporal closeness are the substance of knowledge and ideas.

COMPLEX IMAGES' SOURCES' GENERATIONS OR RENEWALS, MEMORIZATION AND STORAGE, AND AROUSALS OR RECOLLECTIONS

    The above generations, memorizations, storages of individual images' sources and the above activations and activities of neuronal ways among the individual images sources can be looked upon as the generation, memorization, and storage of a complex image('s source).
    In addition, every time individual images sources which compose a complex image are renewed, the neuronal ways among them are reactivated, too, and those can be looked upon as the complex image's (source's) renewal.
    In addition, the arousals of some individual images' sources on the basis of similarity and on that of temporal closeness can be looked upon as a complex image's (source's) arousal.

FUNCTIONS BEYOND EACH KIND OF SENSATION AND MEMORY

After all, individual images' sources' recognitions, generations or renewals, and memorizations and storages, the activations and activities and excitements and transmissions of neuronal ways among individual images sources on the basis of similarity, and individual images' sources' arousals or recollections on the basis of similarity function only in each kind of memory and cannot function beyond each kind. In contrast, (1) the activations and activities and excitements and transmissions of the neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of temporal closeness, and (2) individual images sources' arousals or recollections on the basis of temporal closeness function not only in the same kind of memory but also between different kinds of memories and can function beyond each kind. In addition, (3) the consistency of different kinds of sources explained earlier can function beyond eack kind. From the beginning, sensations cannot function beyond each kind. Therefore it is only (1)(2)(3) that function beyond each kind of sensation and memory.

THE LOCATION OF MEMORIAL NEURONAL GROUPS

    Each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging and converging are localized to a pair of lobes in the cerebrum. In human beings, what practically exist and function are visual kind and auditory kind. The visual kind is localized to a pair of occipital lobes, the auditory kind is localized to a pair of temporal lobes.
    Neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of similarity can be looked upon as a part of each kind of memorial neuronal group converging and diverging.
    In contrast, the neuronal ways among the same kind of and different kinds of individual images' sources on the basis of temporal closeness stretch their axons from a lobe to not only the same lobe in the same hemisphere but the same lobe in the opposite hemisphere and different lobes in the same hemisphere and in the opposite hemisphere. Those axons occupy a considerable part of the cerebral medulla. However, their neuronal bodies and axonal terminals are in the cerebral cortex. Therefore the importance of cerebral cortices does not waver.

THE MEANING OF AROUSALS

From the beginning, as was explained earlier, the word of "Arousal" or Arising has a general meaning. That a part of a function which can cause or change its necessary and direct part is caused or changed can be called the function's Arousal or Arising. Simply, even if a function arises, it is not always caused, and it sometimes end halfway. Also in recollections of images, the word of arousal or arising is used in that sense, and even if images' sources arise, they are not always recollected. The reason will be explained in the following section.

NEURONAL GROUPS' EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS' DISAPPEARING

    While a neuron (u) is exciting and transmitting by the transmission of another neuron (s), even if another neuron (t) transmits to the neuron (u), the neuron (u) goes on exciting and transmitting by the transmission of the neuron (s) with the same frequency as that of the neuron (s), regardless of, simply, ignoring the transmission of the neuron (t). That can be called (s)'s excitement and transmission's "Passing Through," Going through, or Coming Through, and (t)'s excitement and transmission's "Disappearing."
    While a neuronal group (U) is exciting and transmitting by the transmission of another neuronal group (S), even if another neuronal group (T) transmits to the neuronal group (U), the neuronal group (U) goes on exciting and transmitting by the transmission of the neuronal group (S) with the same spatial and temporal position, frequency, concentration, spatial and temporal arrangement, and their changes as those of the neuronal group (S), almost regardless of the transmission of the neuronal group (T). That can be called (S)'s excitement and transmission's Passing Through, Going Through, or Coming Through and (T)'s excitement and transmission's "Disappearing."
    As was explained earlier, the neuronal group from recognitions to the neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources is a diverging one, and the neuronal group from them to the replay is a converging one. In a neuronal group converging, it is a limited number (N) of branches' excitements and transmissions which excite and transmit the earliest, the most continuously, at the highest density, the most widely, and the closest to the center that pass through, while making others disappear, and reach their destination.

LIMITING RECOLLECTIONS OF COMPLEX IMAGES

    As was explained in the above section, when many branches' excitements and transmissions are caused in a converging neuronal group, a limited number (N) of them which excite and transmit the earliest, the most continuously, at the highest density, the most widely, and the closest to the center pass through and reach their destination while making the others disappear. In addition, as was explained earlier, in each kind of memory, the neuronal ways from the neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual sources to the replay converge. Those were able to be called each kind of memorial neuronal group converging on the replay. Therefore, at once, even when many complex images' sources arise, a limited number (N) of them reach the replay and are recollected.
    This can be explained in the following way, too, when a reproducible space which was explained earlier is payed attention to. Every reproducible space is limited. It is a limited number of sources that can occupy such a limited space. For example, the reproducible space of a visual sensory image (as if) with both eyes, in a human being, is about 180°ahead in the same way as that of a visual sensation with both eyes, and when a huge complex image like a soaring wall occupies it, the others hardly appear.
    Therefore, in each kind of memory, a limited number (N) or less of complex images' sources reach the replay and recollected. This can be divided into the following two cases.

(1) When N or less of complex images' sources arise, all of them are recollected.
(2) When more than N of complex images' sources arise, N of them which excite and transmit the earliest, the most continuously, at the highest density, the most widely, and the closest to the center are recollected.

The above case of (2) can be called a recollection's "Saturation" or Being Saturated.
    However, that limited number (N) varies depending on an internal condition. In the whole of the reproducible space, that is, the sensory image field, the larger complex images are and so the more they obstruct one another, the smaller N gets. Simply, when we think complicated things, N gets smaller.

INCOMPLETE RECOLLECTIONS

When we look into them a little more closely, we find the following. It is probable that the complex images' sources which will be recollected do not completely make others disappear and that some individual images' sources of some other complex images' sources or their parts replace some parts of those recollected. For example, it is probable that the essence of a thing is recollected but that its periphery is not. Such recollections can be called "Incomplete Recollections."
However, when we look into them more closely, we find the following. In an association, that is, a series of a lot of recollections, it is more probable that some complex images are incompletely recollected. However, those incompletely recollected, as long as they have arisen, can influence the following recollections in the association by causing the excitements and transmissions of some image to image neuronal ways. For example, it is usual that the conclusion is clear though the thinking process is vague. Therefore we do not need to worry too much about incomplete recollections.

SOME KINDS OF RECOLLECTIONS OF COMPLEX IMAGES SOURCES

At the stage of recollections, that is, replays, practically, images' sources are recollected as each kind of sensory image's source. That is, each kind of recollection independently exists and fuctions. For example, visual kind of recollection and auditory kind of recollection independently exist and function respectively. In contrast, complex images consist of some kinds of individual images like visual ones, auditory ones. Therefore, in order to fully understand the recollection of complex images, we need to take into account some kinds of recollections like the visual kind of recollection and the auditory kind of recollection. Taking into account only a kind of recollection is like slicing complex images. However, we cannot help doing so in order to simplify explanations.

LIMITING FUNCTIONS AND LIMITED FUNCTIONS

    In general, limiting functions, limited functions, and so on can be defined in the following way.

    There are some sets each of which (F = (f1,f2,…)) has the following properties in each of the individuals of the species of, at least, higher mammals including human beings.

(1) F go through a common process (P).
(2) In a situation (S) and in a time (LT), in the case (C1) where a number (N) or less of F arise, all of them are caused with their simple tendencies (ST) to be caused, and in the case (C2) where more than N of F arise, N of F which have the largest tendencies (CT) to be caused while competing with one another in the process (LP) which limits F in the process (P).
(3) However, the number (N) fluctuate in an internal condition.
(4) Out of the above, there is some difference between the individuals of the same species and of the same age in those tendencies (ST and CT), and there is little difference in the others.

In the above, the set of functions (F) and the common process (P) which F go through containing the process (LP) which limits F can be called a "Limiting Function" of the individual in the situation (S), the set (F = (f1,f2,…)) can be called the "Limited Functions" belonging to the limiting function, the process (LP) which limits F in the process (P) can be called the limiting function's or the limited functions' "Limiting Process," the time in which F are limited can be called the limiting function's "Limiting Time," a limited function's tendency (ST) to be caused in C1 can be called the limited function's "Simple Tendency (to Be Caused)," and a limited function's tendency (CT) in C2 can be called the limiting function's "Tendency (to Be Caused) (While Competing with One Another)."
    However, Tendencies (ST) in C1 were fundamental ones, and tendencies (CT) in C2 always contain ST. Whatever has a small CT has enough ST. In addition, usually, more than N of limited functions arise, and N of them are caused. Therefore, in general, a limited function's tendency (CT) to be caused while competing with one another in C2 can be called the limited function's tendency (to be caused). Practically, it can be said that more than a limited number of limited functions arise, and that the limited number of them which have the largest tendencies are caused. It is the most important thing both in recollections of images which are being explained in this book and in egos which will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS."

LIMITING RECOLLECTION AS LIMITING FUNCTIONS

    The recollections of complex images are limiting functions. Let us comfirm this.
    Because a complex image consists of some kinds of individual images' sources and because the recollection of a complex image consists of some kinds of recollections of individual images, if it is a limiting function, it is a "complex" one. If this complexity were always explained, the sentences would be complicated. Therefore its explanation will be omitted hereafter.

[Complex images' sources as limited functions and the limited recollection of each complex image]

    Complex images’sources, when they arise, go through memorial neuronal groups converging to the replay, and limited number N or less of them which excite and transmit the earliest, the most continuously, at the highest density, the most widely, and the closest to the center reach the replay, while making the others disappear, and are recollected. Therefore complex images' sources in the recollections of them are limited functions. In addition, each complex image and its arousal and recollection can be looked upon as a limited function. This can be called the "Limited" Recollection of Each Complex Image.

[Situations of recollections of complex images]

    The direct situations of recollections of complex images are some properties which some parts of some sensations' sources just sensed and some individual images' sources just recollected have. The recognitions of those properties start to cause the arousals of individual images' sources on the basis of similarity and then on that of temporal closeness and start to compose complex images' sources. Moreover, their indirect situations are the material and bodily sources which cause those neuronal sources, the materials and functions which cause those material and bodily sources, and so forth. For example, interpersonal relations are indirect external situations.

[Limiting processes of recollections of complex images]

    That each kind of memorial neuronal groups from neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources to the replay converges and that the complex images' sources which excite and transmit the earliest, the most continuously, at the highest density, the most widely, and the closest to the center reach the replay while making the others disappear are the limiting processes in recollections.

[The limiting time of recollections]

    It is a time of tenths of a second. By the way, recollections in a broad sense include associations. In this chapter, the recollections not in a broad sense but in a narrow sense are being argued. An association is a series of recollections. Each of them are a recollection in a narrow sense. An association continues for seconds or more, and the number of the complex images recollected in it are not limited to N.

[Internal conditions where N fluctuates in recollections]

    In the whole of the reproducible space, that is, the sensory image field, the larger the complex images are and the more they obstruct one another, the smaller N gets. For example, when a person who is very important for the self are recollected, N gets smaller, and when people who are not so important for the self are recollected, N gets larger.

[Tendencies of recollections of complex images]

    Directly, the tendencies for complex images to be recollected are that their sources excite and transmit the earliest, the most continuously, at the highest density, the most widely, and the closest to the center in converging neuronal groups. Indirectly, they are the activities of the neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources which compose the complex images and the activities of the neuronal groups among them, that is, image to image neuronal ways. However, it is impossible to measure them in living things. Therefore, we cannot help depending on our daily experiences or psychological test as follows.
    In our daily lives, we feel that "we cannot forget those which think of again and again." As will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS," the complex images which egos manipulate and think of again and again are hardly forgotten. That is because, by egos' manipulating and thinking of images again and again, above all, the neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of temporal closeness are activated again and again and those activities are retained.

[Common processes which limited recollections as limited functions go through]

    It is the following neuronal groups or ways and their activities and excitements and transmissions which complex images' sources go through.

(1)The neuronal groups memorizing and storing the individual images' sources composing complex images and the neuronal ways among them.
(2)some kinds of memorial neuronal groups converging to the replay
(3)some kinds of replays

[Limiting functions as limiting functions]

    In the recollection of complex images, the set of complex images' sources as limited functions and the common process containing the limiting process explained above are a limiting function. It can be called the "(Limiting) Recollection (of (Complex) Images(' Sources)" or (Complex) Images' (Sources') Being Recollected (with Limitation). When it needs to be emphasized that the recollection of complex images is a limiting function, the words of "Limiting" or "with Limitation" will be used.

OUTLINES OF COMPLEX IMAGES

    There are a lot of psychological tests with which some parts of the tendencies of recollections can be examined like free association and Rorschach test. Of course, those examples are not devised for the test of those tendencies, they can, as a result, examine those tendencies. A writer of this book devised the following. The subjects will be shown several photos or pictures and asked several questions. For example, a photo of the face of a tiger looming from a bush will be shown, and the question "how will you do?" will be asked. Of course, if it were real, the person would have been killed already. Even through such unreal tests, such tendencies of recollections or egos as follows loom up. First, that question does not propose any conditions concerning whether that person was walking in the forest alone or together with some other persons. If that person answer that he or she will respond it alone, the possibility of his or her tendency to be isolated or to be independent looms up. Of course, it is only a possibility. However, when some other tests are done and combined with it, that possibility gets larger or smaller. In addition, when those tendencies are large, when some other tests are done and combined, the possibility of distinguishing whether it is the tendency to be isolated or to be independent gets larger. In addition, when researchers want to test tendencies other than that to be isolated or that to be independent, for example that to be destructive, they can propose some conditions concerning whether that person is walking alone, in a group, or so.
    In the above examples, the words of "isonation," "independence," and "destruction" have already been used which designate some outlines. These books strictly define outlines of limited functions. The set of the limited functions whose tendencies are formed together on the basis of similarity can be called the Outline of Limited Functions. Limited recollections, too, which are limited functions, have outlines. They can be called the Outlines of (Limited) Recollections or the Outlines of (Complex) Images. Moreover, the average of the limiting functions belonging to an outline can be called the Tendency (of the Outline) of (Limited) Function. That is, even when the word of outlines is omitted, the word of tendencies sometimes designates outlines' tendencies in these books. Moreover, the matrix of the tendencies (of the outlines) of limiting functions which can arise in a situation can be called the Tendencies or Habit of the Limiting Function in the Situation. When they are defined so, it will be a little easier to statistically treat what is called personalities which are complicated.
    Now, we find that, also in our daily lives and psychology, we have already been talking of such outlines, and that some of those talks have not been nonsense. For example, we argue other persons' personalities in the way of saying he or she is "isolated," " independent," "destructive," or the like, and such arguments are often relevant.

RECOLLECTIONS OF COMPLEX IMAGES WITH INTENSITY

As was explained earlier, each thing appearing as a mental phenomenon has quantity as a property like brightness, distance, loudness, clearness, intensity, and so on. Such quantity can be called the "Intensity" (of the Thing) Appearing (as Mental Phenomenon). Each individual image has its intensity, too. Each complex image has its intensity, too, as the average of the intensities of the individual images which compose it. It is premised that such intensity is fundamentally caused by the property of the neuronal source of an appearing thing like the density of its excitement and transmission.
However, some intensities appearing as images is premised to be caused by some inevitable properties of recollections. For example, images fade in, reach its peak, and fade out. Such change of intensity is not merely caused by the properties of sources. The complex of the intensity caused by the properties of sources and that caused by those of recollections can be called the Intensity of Recollections, and recollections accompanying such intensity can be called (Limiting) Recollections (of (Complex) Images(' Sources)) with Intensity, and Their Being Recollected Intensely or Faintly (with Limitation), or the like. After all, a real recollection of images is some kinds of limiting recollections of complex images' sources with intensity. They are usually designated by the simple words of the recollection of images, images' being recollected, or the like in these books.

PERCEPTIONS

In some kinds of sensation and some kinds of memories, it is a perception that the sensations' sources is sensed, that some properties which some parts of that source just sensed have are recognized, and that some complex images' sources are recollected spatially and temporally close to those parts on the basis of similarity and on that of temporal closeness. For example, it is a perception of a particular person that the visual sensation's source is sensed, that the properties which the part of his or her face of that source just sensed has are recognized, and that some complex images' sources consisting of the visual individual images' sources of his or her face in the past and the auditory ones of his or her name and spoken words and some complex images' sources of general human beings are recollected spatially and temporally close to that part. In such a way, he or she is recognized as that person and recognized as a human being, and his or her subtle change, for example, his or her aging is recognized. This is a recognition in a broad sense.

ASSOCIATIONS

    Some properties which some parts of those complex images' sources just recollected in a perception explained above have are recognized, some complex images' sources are recollected on the basis of similarity and on that of temporal closeness, some properties which some parts of those complex images' sources just recollected have are recognized, and the same are repeated. Such a series of recollections is an association.
    A series of complex images recollected in an association can be looked upon as a huge complex image which is prolonged temporarily. Such can be included in complex images. In addition, an association can be looked upon as a recollection prolonged temporarily. Such can be included in recollections. However, such a recollection, that is, an association is different from a recollection as a limiting function explained above, and complex images are not limited to N in a limited time. However, each of the recollections which compose such a recollection is a limiting function. Therefore it can be said that such a recollection, that is, an association is a complex limiting function in a broad sense.
    When N of complex images are recollected with limitation in the first recollection, even if each of N of them is recognized and causes A of complex images' arousals and if N multiplied by A arise in the second recollection, N of them are recollected with limitation. Moreover, not all the N of complex images just recollected are recognized in the second recollection, and so less than N multiplied by A arise and N or less are recollected. The complex images which are recollected in associations are limited in such a way. For example, the perceived building of school or office causes the recollection of some interpersonal relations in it, but the most important one is recognized and causes the recollection of the way to cope with it. If it were not for limiting recollections, associations would sprawl infinitely and go chaotic.

PERCEPTIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS

The following (1)(2)(3) are possible as the relation of perceptions and association.

(1) A new association starts from a new perception.
(2) An old association is interrupted by a new perception, and a new association starts from the new perception.
(3) An old association is changed by a new perception.

(1) seems to happen when we wake up in the morning. However, usually, because we have been dreaming when we wake up, it is (3). For example, when we wake up from a dream and when we perceive our bed room, we start to doubt the reality of the dream, and start to wonder why we had such a dream, and so on. Pure (1) happens when we are suddenly awaken from deep sleep other than REM sleep or from complete loss of consciousness. However, such a state may well be looked upon as being still "stupor." (2) happens when an unexpected thing happen suddenly. For example, it happens when we are visited by an unexpected person on a holiday which had no schedule. However, such completely unexpected things are rare, too. We are expecting more or less what will happen. After all, (3) is our daily lives.

AN EXAMPLE WHEN WE WAKE UP

Usually, we wake up while we are dreaming, and the contents of the dream are associated for a while after waking up. Simultaneously, the bed room is perceived, the windows are perceived, the world out of them are associated, and yesterday's events or today's particular schedule is associated. Simultaneously, egos start thinking, "Was it a dream? Why did I have such a strange dream?" Thinking will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS."

LINGUAL IMAGES

    In each human being, from the neonatal period to the senile period, many spoken words are sensed on an auditory sensation, many written words and signs are sensed on a visual sensation, and many complex images' sources of words are generated, memorized, stored, and recollected. Such sources can be called Lingual Images(' Sources).
    While words are seen and heard and while lingual images' sources are generated, children are shown the things which those words designate by their seniors. In addition, things which they designate is sometimes clear in the situations. In such a way, more and more gigantic and complicated complex images' sources involving lingual images' are generated, and complicated recollections, perceptions, associations, and recognitions become possible.
    In addition, grammar facilitate the development of complicated recollections of complex images, associations, and thinkings. For example 1, proper nouns and some pronouns designate particular things, and common nouns and some other pronouns designate general things. The generation of the images of common nouns facilitate the generation of the images of general things. For example 2, predicates usually designate the properties or attributes including functions of their subjects. It facilitates the generation of images of properties inclusing functions. For example 3, some conjunctions designate cause and effect, and they facilitate the assocaitions, thinkings, and recognitions of cause and effect.
    After all, language is the means of not only transmissions and storage in the society but also mental functions like memories, recollections, perceptions, associations, thinkings, and recognitions in each individual.

IDEAS OR THOUGHTS

What are called "ideas" or "thoughts" like Copernican system, the theory of evolution, liberal rights, and democratic systems are huge complex images or series of complex images recollected in associations. In addition, they are transmitted with long words. Moreover, in order for them to be formed, egos and thinkings, too, which will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS" need to function. Moreover, they have been formed in the human society and history, and so their formation need reading, attending lectures, debating, and so forth.

BEING FORGOTTEN

The activities of the neuronal groups or ways which are acquiredly activated decrease when left alone. The activities of the neuronal groups storing the individual images' sources composing a complex image's source and those of the neuronal ways among them also decrease when left alone, and the tendency for that complex image to be recollected disappear. This can be called the (complex) image's (source's) Being Forgotten or the thing's Being Forgotten.

LOSS OF MEMORY

For some reasons, in an animal individual, it irreversible lose the tendencies for any complex images to be recollected can be called "Loss of Memory," Losing Memories, complete forgetting, or forgetting all.
Only an animal having memories loses memories. An Animal having no memories cannot lose them. As long as an animal exists and functions, loss of memory is rarely caused. Are brain death, vegetative state, and so on any exceptions? However, they are looked upon as death. It is clear that loss of memory is caused when an animal having memories dies.

RENEWALS OF MEMORIES

After a complex image's source was generated, memorized, and stored, when the sources which caused it is recognized, that complex image's source is generated, memorized, and stored again. This can be looked upon as its renewal. This is also called the (complex) Image's (Source's) Renewal or Being Renewed, the Renewal of Its Memory, or the like in thse books.
As was explained earlier, though every complex image is being forgotten, when it is renewed again and again, its activity are retained, and it is not forgotten. Simply, what is seen, heard, felt, and thought again and again cannot be forgotten. Renewals of memories are important parts of memories. If there were no renewals, complex images would only be forgotten, and there would be no memories. Therefore not only are renewals of memories included in memories but also when renewals needs to be emphasized, memories are called Memories and Renewals in these books.

VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS CHANGING SENSATIONS

    Concerning visual sensations, we can move our eyeballs, head, and go closer to a thing so that it can be seen largely and clearly. Concerning auditory sensations, though we cannot move our auricles like some other animals, we can move our head and go closer to a thing so that it can be heard loudly and clearly. We can do the same concerning olfactory sensations. Concerning balancing sensations, we can change our bodies' movements and postures to reduce dizziness. Concerning taste sensations, if we do not put any pieces of food into our mouth, we cannot taste them, and we can chew it well to make its taste intense and clear. Concerning somatic sensations, if we want to know a thing's touch, we can touch it, and if it is too hot or spiny, we can remove our hands. Concerning autonomic sensations, though they are not as clear as somatic sensations, if we have severe palpitation and dyspnea, we should rest, if we are hungry, we should eat, and if we are thirsty, we should drink. Such voluntary movements like moving one's eyeballs, moving one's head, going closer to the source can be called Voluntary Movements "Changing Sensations."
    There is little possibility that any parts of the sources which are not sensed intensely or clearly by voluntary movements changing sensations are generated, memorized, or stored or renewed as individual images or complex ones. For example, things which are only sensed vaguely on the periphery of the visual field with no movement of our eyeballs or head are rarely done so.
    In addition, there is little possibility that any parts of the sources which are not sensed intensely or clearly by voluntary movements changing sensations are overlapped with complex images, that is, perceived.
    When some parts of some sensations' sources are sensed intensely and clearly by voluntary movements changing sensations, the possibility gets larger that those parts are generated, memorized, and stored or renewed as individual images or complex ones.

ATTENTION

     Moreover, that possibility gets much larger in the following cases. As will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS," each ego, in thinkings, can manipulate complex images in the ways of bringing them closer, transforming, combining, dissolving, and so on. When egos manipulate a complex images, the possibility gets much larger that its sources is memorized and stored or renewed. That is because, though images in general are vague and transient, egos hold them steady to a degree by manipulating them.
    From the beginning, egos, in thinkings, can construct, dissolve, and reconstruct more and more complicated and sophisticated complex images, that is, ideas or thoughts. If the results of such constructions and reconstructions by egos were not memorized or stored, egos would always have to construct them from scratch. For the very reason that the complex images constracted and reconstructed by egos are memorized and stored, we can, for example, rethink what were thoght yesterday.
    Even if egos do not manipulate the complex images when they are generated, if they are recollected and if the ego manipulate them after a while, they are memorized and stored steadily. For example, after we see a person for the first time, if we think of him or her again and again like "what is he or she," "why he or she behaved in that way," and so on, we can hardly forget him or her.
    In such a way, an ego's manipulating some complex images(' sources) can also be called the ego's "Attention" to them or the ego's Paying Attention to them. After all, we can hardly forget what we paid much attention to.

OTHER FUNCTIONS SIMILAR TO MEMORIES

Besides the memories which have been explained so far, afterimages, sensory memories, instant memories, and short-term or long-term memories can be recognized which are similar to them or are included in them. They will be explained in the following sections.

AFTERIMAGE

Even each neuron's one super-short-term excitement and transmission which compose a neuronal group's excitement and transmission continues for milliseconds (several thousandths of a second). In contrast, every reproducible source changes every moment. For example, even if we trace it with voluntary movements changing sensations which were explained in one of the above sections, a running animal's spatial arrangement of the limbs changes. Therefore, even after a reproducible source have changed or disappeared, the neuronal source go on exciting and transmitting at least for milliseconds. As a result, what is called an "afterimage" is caused at least for milliseconds.
It is significant that temporal changes are appearing at present like tracks by afterimages. For example, if an object drags its afterimage on its east side, we find that it is moving westward.

SENSORY MEMORIES

While the neuronal sources just sensed is processed with recognitions, cuts, and so forth, some of them sometimes remain as they are without those processes for tenths of a second or for seconds. This can be called "Sensory Memories." For example, the short words spoken by another person and sensed on an auditory sensation, which were not paid attention to, are sometimes paid attention to after tenths of a second or seconds. This is a sample of auditory sensory memories. However, only short spoken words can be paid attention to in such a way, and long spoken words cannot. In addition, only when there has been some silence after the words were spoken, they can be paid attention to in such a way. In addition, when the words have been being spoken without a pause, they cannot be paid attention to in such a way.

RECOLLECTIONS OF PAST EVENTS

If past events were memorized as they were in the same way as movies or videos did, the neurons of a human being, whose number is the largest of all the animals on the earth, would be insufficient. Recollections of past events share common complex images. For example, the persons like parents, partner, children, and friends, who often enter past events often remembered, are shared. It sometimes happens that some of those who enter a event are of the present age though the event occurred ten years ago, but it will not cause serious problems.
Anyway, not only past things but also present and future things occur to us. Those are included in recollections in these books. It is present and future things that we have anxiety about and expectation for. Most of our thinking is occupied with how to do at the present and in the future.

INSTANT MEMORIES

    While the individual image's sources which have just been generated are memorized and stored, they are recollected instantly for less than seconds and disappear. This can be called "Instant" Memories, Instant Recollection of images, Instant Recollection, or images' Being Recollected instantly, and such images can be called Instant Images.
    By afterimages which were explained above and by instant memories, temporal changes are appearing at present. Simply, by comparing the past which are remaining at present and the present, we know changes.
    While the memories which have been explained consistently in this book are caused through the process of generation→memorization→storage→arousal→recollection, instant memories can be caused either by the same process where memorization→storage→arousal are an instant one or through the process of generation→arousal→recollection which lack memorization→storage. Anyway, instant memories and afterimages are included in memories and in recollections in these books.

SHORT OR LONG MEMORIES

    After a complex image's source is generated and memorized and stored, when it is not paid any attention to, the activities of the neuronal group memorizing and storing the individual images' sources composing it and those of the neuronal ways among them decrease and disappear in a short time, maybe within seconds. When it is paid attention to within seconds, their activities are retained, and it can be recollected after more than seconds. This can be called Short Memories. Of course, they are included in memories.
    However, each of us does not need to think too much in order to establish short memories. When each of us rethinks of the perceived or recollected things, some short memories have already been established. For example, we do not forget a person who we are interested in. In contrast, within seconds, we will forget people who we pass by on the way to school or office unless they are very handsome, beautiful, very interesting, or very strange.
    However, they are forgotten within days without any more attention. In order for things to be stored for more than days, those things need to be paid attention to again and again every several hours or days. This can be called "Long Memories." Of course, they are included in memories. However, again, we do not need to think too much in order to establish long memories. In our daily lives, what are so important that we should not forget them cannot help being seen, heard, thought of, and paid attention to again and again.

COMPLEX IMAGES' SOURCES = IMAGES

Again, when the words of "complex images' sources" are always used, sentences are complicated. Therefore they are also called Images in these books.

ONTOGENESIS OF SENSATIONS AND MEMORIES

In human beings, the sensations excluding visual and auditory ones have been fully developed at delivery. It is in weeks or months after delivery that visual and auditory ones fully develop. That is because they are complicated ones and because their functions should be switched from those in the amniotic fluid to those in the general air.
The nervous functions necessary for memories develop almost fully by the age of 3. In other words, those functions are not enough until that age. Therefore we cannot remember the experiences before it. After it, those functions develop slowly, reach their peak around the age of fifteen, and thereafter reduce slowly.

PHYLOGENESIS OF SENSATIONS AND MEMORIES

    Animals have some sensations by definition in these books. In general, terrestrial vertebrates and some terrestrial arthropods have the most complicated sensations of all the animals on the earth. That is because auditory and olfactory sensations cannot be much evolved underwater. In addition, some mammals have the most complicated sensations of all the vertebrates. That is because they have the largest and the most complicated cerebrums and sensory organs. It cannot be said that human beings have the most complicated sensations. At least, human beings' olfactory ones have degenerated. In the sensations of human beings, visual ones and auditory ones are more complicated, and olfactory ones are simpler. Though the distinction between somatic sensations and autonomic ones is clear in vertebrates, it is vague in the other animals. Anyway, the functions which are premised to cause something appearing on a sensation including touches, pains, hotness, coldness, smells, tastes, and so on can be called Sensations. For example, if anything is appearing on a sensation in a jellyfish or sea anemone, the function causing it is a sensation, and otherwise, it is merely a kind of response to stimuli.
    These books define sensations in the above way. They define memories strictly in the following way. The functions which are premised to cause something appearing as images, that is, recollections of images and the functions between recollections and sensations are called Memories (in a Narrow Sense) in these books. When memories are defined in such a strict way, the animals having memories will be limited to vartebrates. Human beings have the most complicated and rich memories, and some species of mammals have comparatively complicated and rich memories.
    All the animals that have memories have sensations. That is because some properties which some parts of the sources just sensed have are recognized, those parts are cut out, and individual images' sources are generated for the first time and compose complex images' sources. The animals which have sensations and memories evolve from the animals which have sensations and no memories. Perceptions, associations, feelings, desires, egos, thoughts, and so on contain some recollections of images. Therefore the animals having such functions have sensations and memories. The animals having such functions evolve from the animals which have sensations and memories and none of such functions.
    Therefore sensations or sensations and the functions which could not exist without them can be called "Sensations or More." In addition, sensations and memories or sensations and memories and the functions which could not exist without them can be called "Memories or More."
    The relation of mental emotions→egos→thinkings is the same as that of sensations→memories. For example, all the animals having egos have sensations, memories, mental emotions, and they evolve from the animals having such functions and no egos.
    Human beings have the most complicated memories or more of all the animals so far on the earth. Moreover, on the earth from now on, it is possible that some animals having more complicated memories or more than human beings will evolve from them or from some other animals. From the beginning, human beings can evolve, too.

References

EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES
―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS

FACING TENDENCIES FALLING INTO A VICIOUS CIRCLE
―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING HABITS

SENSATIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS OF IMAGES ―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING MEMORIES

THINGS IN THEMSELVES AND THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

THINGS IN THEMSELVES AND THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL THINGS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

WHOLES AND PARTS

THINGS

NECESSARY PROPERTIES

MATERIAL THINGS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

MATERIAL THINGS

FUNCTIONS

NEURONS' EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS

SHORT-TERM REPETITION OF EXCITEMENT AND TRANSMISSION

NECESSARY FUNCTIONS, OBJECTS, AND SO ON

DECISIVE PARTS OF FUNCTIONS

FUNCTIONS' FUNCTIONING

FUNCTIONS' TIMELY FUNCTIONING

MATERIAL THINGS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

POSSIBILITIES

SITUATIONS AND THE NATURE

TENDENCIES AND ABILITIES

ACTIVITIES OF NEURONS

PROMOTIONS⇔RESTRAINTS

FUNCTIONS' STOPS

FUNCTIONS' AROUSALS

COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE STOPS

LIVING THINGS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

LIVING THINGS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

INDIVIDUALS

BODIES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

ANIMALS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

HUMAN BEINGS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

NEURONAL GROUPS' EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS

NERVOUS SYSTEMS

UNITARY NEURONAL GROUPS

SENSORY GROUPS

COMPLEX NEURONAL GROUPS

LINEAR NEURONAL GROUPS

NEURONAL WAYS

DIVERGING NEURONAL GROUPS

CONVERGING NEURONAL GROUPS

PAIRS OF NEURONAL GROUPS

NEURONAL GROUPS

SERIES OF NEURONS ACTUALLY JOINING

NEURONAL GROUPS RETAINING SPATIAL RELATIVE POSITIONS

NEURONAL GROUPS' INSTANT EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS

NEURONAL GROUPS' EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS

NEURONAL GROUPS' INNATE OR ACQUIRED ACTIVATIONS

THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

BASIC KINDS OF THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

THINGS APPEARING ON THE SAME KIND OF SENSATION AND SENSORY IMAGE = THINGS APPEARING ON EACH KIND OF SENSATION AND SENSORY IMAGE

THINGS APPEARING ON PLEASURE OR DISPLEASURE SENSATIONS

THINGS APPEARING ON SENSORY ORGANS ⇔ THINGS APPEARING BEYOND SENSORY ORGANS

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL THINGS AND PROPERTIES APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

THINGS APPEARING INTENSELY OR FAINTLY

THINGS APPEARING AS IMAGES = IMAGES

THINGS APPEARING AS INDIVIDUAL IMAGES = INDIVIDUAL IMAGES

THINGS APPEARING AS IMAGES = IMAGES

THINGS APPEARING AS COMPLEX IMAGES = COMPLEX IMAGES

SENSORY IMAGES AND COMPLEX IMAGES

THINGS APPEARING ON PERCEPTIONS

A LIMITED NUMBER OR LESS OF IMAGES' APPEARING

THINGS APPEARING ON ASSOCIATIONS

RECOGNITIONS

Things Appearing as Images = Images

WORDS APPEARING AS IMAGES = LANGUAGE APPEARING AS IMAGES = LINGUAL IMAGES

INTENSITIES OF IMAGES

COMPOSITION OF THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

A CONTINUITY OF THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

NERVOUS FUNCTIONS CAUSING THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

NERVOUS FUNCTIONS CAUSING THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

PERCEPTIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS

THE INDIVIDUALITY OF SENSATIONS, RECOLLECTIONS, AND MENTAL FUNCTIONS

THE SAME KIND OF CONTINUOUS SENSATION AND MEMORY = EACH KIND OF CONTINUOUS SENSATION AND MEMORY

SOURCES OF THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

THE SAME KIND OF CONTINUOUS SENSATION AND IMAGE'S SOURCE = EACH KIND OF CONTINUOUS SENSATION AND IMAGE'S SOURCE

THINGS RETAINED BY NEURONAL SOURCES AND WAYS TO RETAIN THEM

REPLAYS OF SOURCES

PROCESSING FUNCTIONS OF SOURCES

REPRODUCIBLE SPACES, SENSATIONS' FIELDS AND IMAGES' FIELDS

SENSATIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS OF IMAGES
―A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING MEMORIES