EX@SENSATIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS OF IMAGES

SENSATIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS OF IMAGES

THINGS IN THEMSELVES AND THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

    This "SENSATIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS OF IMAGES" can be called "this book". This book, "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES" and "FACING TENDENCIES FALLING INTO A VICIOUS CIRCLE" can be called "These Books". These books were once called "A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING MEMORIES," "A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING EGOS," and "A PSYCHOLOGY OF ANIMALS HAVING HABITS" respectively, but they were changed into the current ones, which, we think, are more specific. These books can also be looked upon as a book, and each of them can also be looked upon as a chapter composing it. These books as a book can also be called "A TRILOGY ON PSYCHOLOGY". These books, "EXISTENCE AND LIBERTY," "DETAILS OF EXISTENCE AND LIBERTY," "SEPARATING EACH STATE POWER INTO THE TWO SYSTEMS OF THAT OF THE RULE OF LAW PROTECTING LIBERAL RIGHTS AND THAT OF THE HUMAN RULE SECURING SOCIAL RIGHTS," and "PARTICULAR THINGS AND GENERAL THINGS" can also be called "these books."

    Things excluding time and space are completely divided into the two groups of things in themselves and things appearing as mental phenomena which will be explained below. That is, space and time excluded, there are no residues or overlaps in this division.
    Material things, material functions, bodies, bodily functions, nervous systems, nervous functions, neurons, neurons' excitements and transmissions, molecules, atoms, nuclei, neutrons, protons, electrons, universal gravitation, electrostatic force, magnetic force, and so forth can be called "Things in Themselves" or Things Themselves.
    In contrast, sights, sounds, smells, dizziness, tastes, pain, hotness, coldness, palpitation, dyspnea, hunger, thirst, nausea, images, ideas, and so forth can be called "Things Appearing as Mental Phenomena," Things Appearing as Phenomena, or Appearing Things. They can also be called "Phenomena" or Mental Phenomena. However, we need to distinguish things appearing on sensations, things appearing as images, things appearing to me, things appearing to you, things which appeared in the past, things which will appear in the future, things appearing to me at present, things appearing to each of us at the then present, and so forth. We can distinguish them more easily by using the words of "things appearing" "on -," "as -," "in -," "at -," "to -," or the like than by using those of "Phenomena" or the like. Therefore they are mainly called "Things Appearing (as Mental Phenomena)" in these books. In order to prevent misunderstanding, it is better to add the words of "as mental phenomena." However, when they are always added, sentences will be complicated like "things appearing as individual images as mental phenomena." Therefore they are not always added in these books.
    Things appearing as mental phenomena consist of things appearing on sensations and things appearing as images. Things appearing on sensations include things appearing on visual sensations and things appearing on auditory sensations. For example, a sight is a thing appearing on a visual sensation, and a sound is a thing appearing on an auditory sensation. Things occurring to me, things which are thought, expected, remembered, and imagined are included in things appearing as images. The details of appearing things will be explained in the chapter "THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA."
    In things appearing (as mental phenomena), the time when none of them exist is nothing, and the time (1) when some of them exist skips that (2) when none of them exist to that (3) when some of them exist, and the first time (1) and the third (3) are continuous. For example, if we suddenly fell into a deep sleep or a loss of consciousness and suddenly woke from it, we would feel that the time of the sleep or the loss of consciousness was nothing or a moment. However, in fact, each sleep contains swallow ones, mid-awakes, and dreams, and every loss of consciousness accompanies gradual decrease and increase, and so the above is never experienced.

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL THINGS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

    That a thing has spatial extent or is a point, a line, or a plane can be called the thing's being "Spatial," and that a thing has temporal extent or is a moment can be called the thing's being "Temporal."
    While things excluding space and time are completely divided into things in themselves and things appearing (as mental phenomena), things excluding space and time are completely divided into spatial and temporal things and their properties which will be explained below.
    The things which are spatial and temporal, that is, the things which have spatial extent or are points, lines, or planes and have temporal extent or are moments can be called "Spatial and Temporal Things." For example, material things, bodies, nervous systems, neurons, sights, and sounds are spatial and temporal things.
    Each spatial and temporal thing has some things which are not completely spatial. The things which a spatial and temporal thing has and are not completely spatial can be called the "Properties" or Attributes of the spatial and temporal thing, the Properties or Attributes which the spatial and temporal thing has, the things which the spatial and temporal thing has as Properties or Attributes, or the Properties or Attributes attributed to the spatial and temporal thing. For example 1, universal gravitation is not completely spatial and is one of the properties which every material thing has. For example 2, a neuron's excitement and transmission is not completely spatial and is one of the properties attributed to every neuron.
    Every spatial and temporal thing has spatial relative positions, temporal relative positions, qualities, quantities, spatial arrangements, temporal arrangements, and their changes as properties. Spatial positions and temporal positions are all relative properties. When that relativity do not need to be emphasized, with the word "relative" omitted, spatial relative positions can be called "Spatial Positions," and temporal relative positions can be called "Temporal Positions."
    Moreover, most properties of spatial and temporal things have some things which are not completely spatial. For example 1, universal gravitation has direction and quantity, which are not completely spatial. For example 2, a neuron's excitement and transmission has frequency and duration, which are not completely spatial. The things which a property of a spatial and temporal thing has and are not completely spatial, too, can be called the Properties of the property, the Properties which the property has, the things which the property has as Properties, or the Properties attributed to the property. For example, universal gravitation has direction and magnitude as properties of the property. Moreover, each of the properties (1) of a spatial and temporal thing often has some properties (2), and each of the properties (2) sometimes have some properties (3), and the same are repeated. Then, (1), (2), (3), and so forth can be called First Properties, Second Properties, Third Properties, and so forth of the spatial and temporal things. In addition, (1) can be called the "Direct" Properties of the spatial and temporal thing, and (2), (3), ... can be called its "Indirect" Properties. Furthermore, (1), (2), (3), ... can be called merely the Properties of the spatial and temporal thing.
    Furthermore, the spatial and temporal thing to which a property is attributed is sometimes not clear. For example, when the mere word of "evolution" is used, it is unclear whether it designates the evolution from a species to some other species, and the spatial and temporal thing to which the property of evolution is attributed is some species, whether it designates that from a subspecies to some other subspecies, and the spatial and temporal thing to which the property is attributed is some subspecies, or whether it designate general evolution, and and the spatial and temporal thing to which the property is attributed is the whole of living things. Even so, it can be understood which of the above the word designate depending on the situation where it is used. In such a case, with the words like "of a spatial and temporal thing" omitted, the mere word of properties or attributes is used also in these books.
    Things in themselves and things appearing as mental phenomena each consist of their own spatial and temporal things and their properties.

	spatial and temporal things	properties
things in themselves	spatial and temporal things in themselves	properties of spatial and temporal things in themselves
things appearing as mental phenomena	spatial and temporal things appearing as mental phenomena	properties appearing as mental phenomena

    The spatial and temporal things which are included in things in themselves can be called Spatial and Temporal Things in Themselves. Material things, bodies, nervous systems, and neurons are included in spatial and temporal things in themselves.
    The properties of spatial temporal things which are included in things in themselves can be called the Properties of Spatial and Temporal Things in Themselves or Properties in Themselves.
    Spatial and temporal things in themselves included, every spatial and temporal thing has spatial positions, temporal positions, qualities, quantities, spatial arrangements, temporal arrangements, their changes as properties. Moreover, spatial and temporal things in themselves excluding vacuums have mass, universal gravitation, velocity, acceleration, potential energy, kinetic energy, and so forth as properties in themselves.
    The spatial and temporal things which are included in things appearing as mental phenomena can be called Spatial and Temporal Things Appearing (as Mental Phenomena). For example, sights, sounds, smells, tastes, pain, hotness, coldness, palpitation, dyspnea, nausea, images, and ideas are appearing spatial and temporal things. It turns out that most of the example enumerated earlier was their example. However, appearing properties, which will explained below, are included in appearing things.
    The properties of spatial temporal things which are included in things appearing as mental phenomena can be called the Properties of Spatial and Temporal Things Appearing (as Mental Phenomena) or Properties Appearing (as Mental Phenomena).
    Appearing spatial and temporal things included, every spatial and temporal thing has spatial positions, temporal positions, qualities, quantities, spatial arrangements, temporal arrangements, and their changes as properties. Moreover, for example, color as a quality and brightness as a quantity are appearing properties attributed to every spatial and temporal thing appearing on a visual sensation,　and high-low of sound as a quality and loudness as a quantity are appearing properties attributed to every spatial and temporal thing appearing on an auditory sensation.
    Thus, not only appearing spatial and temporal things but also their properties appear. For example, colors and brightness appear on a visual sensation, and high-low and loudness appear on an auditory sensation. Simply, we see colors and hear tones. Therefore the words of "appearing properties" will be used more often than those of "properties of appearing spatial and temporal things" in these books.
    When they are defined thus, it turns out that mass, universal gravitation, and so forth are not appearing properties but properties in themselves. It is premised that the wavelength of light included in properties in themselves is represented as colors included in appearing properties and that the wavelength of sound wave included in properties in themselves is represented as high-law included in appearing properties.

WHOLES AND PARTS

A spatial and temporal thing has the spatial whole, spatial parts, the temporal whole, and temporal parts. For example 1, a neuron has its cellular membrane and its contents as the spatial whole and has a neuronal body, a lot of dendrites, and an axon diverging into a lot of small ones at its terminal as spatial parts. For example 2, things appearing on a visual sensation have the continuity of sights from awakening to falling asleep as the temporal whole and has that of day sights and that of night ones as temporal parts.
While a spatial and temporal thing has the spatial whole and parts and the temporal whole and parts, a property has the whole and parts of its own which are different from them. The latter are not as clear as the former. For example, an excitement and transmission, which is a property of a neuron, has [1] postsynaptic transmission, [2] excitement, [3] presynaptic transmission, and [4] pause, which will be explained later, as parts of a property, and they are not as clear as a neuronal body, dendrites, and an axon which are spatial parts of a neuron.

THINGS

There are some recognitions in a narrow sense, which will be explained in the chapter "MEMORIES", of some properties or attributes in the beginning of every generation of image, recollection of image, perception, association, and mental emotion. Therefore animals, human beings included, can recognize in a broad sense, perceive, associate, or think only what already has some properties. Therefore every common noun designates a thing which already has some properties. For example, the word "water" has designated a thing which has being the most clear, being the most fluid, and being tasteless and odorless as properties since before the distinction between solids, liquids, and gases and the discovery of the elements of hydrogen and oxygen. Therefore, things in themselves, things appearing as mental phenomena, spatial and temporal things, properties, first properties, second properties, and so forth included, what already have some properties can be called "Things." Things include things in themselves, things appearing as mental phenomena, spatial and temporal things, and properties which have been explained.

NECESSARY PROPERTIES

    Moreover, everything has some properties without any of which it could not be looked upon that thing in our daily lives and science. For example, a neuron without the ability to excite or transmit could not be looked upon as a neuron. The properties without any of which a thing could not be looked upon as that thing in our daily lives and science can be called the "Necessary Properties" of or for the thing. For example, the necessary properties of a neuron are being a cell, having a neuronal body, a lot of dendrites, and an axon, and having the ability to excite and transmit.
    When a thing's necessary properties exist, the thing has already been caused, generated, developed, or formed. When a thing's necessary properties continue, the thing continues. That a thing keeps its necessary properties and gets, loses, or changes some other properties is looked upon as the thing's "changing" or being changed. Changing thus is included in continuing.
    A thing's losing some of its necessary properties is looked upon as the thing's being "changed into" another thing, being disordered, aging, dying, or the like. For example, a neuron's completely losing its ability to excite and transmit is looked upon as its being disordered, aging, or dying.
    When a thing causes, changes, or affects some other things, it is directly or indirectly, often indirectly, that it does so. Some of the details of that indirectness matter, and others do not. For example, though it is considerably indirectly that an idea is associated from another, the details of that indirectness does not matter in most of our daily lives and some biological and psychological fields. In addition, if the words like "directly" or "indirectly" were always used, sentences would be complicated. Therefore, as long as a thing (A) is the main cause of another (B), with such words omitted, the descriptions like A's "causing," "generating," "changing," or "forming" B are made in these books.

MATERIAL THINGS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

MATERIAL THINGS

    The spatial and temporal things in themselves which consist of some particles like molecules, ions, atoms, neutrons, protons, electrons, and so forth and which they go out of and come into but which retain their necessary properties can be called "Material Things," Matter, or Substance. Though they are described as living, having life, or the like, Genes, cellular membranes, cells, neurons, nervous systems, bodies, and so forth, too, are no more than material things. In addition, though nervous systems are looked upon as special things which have mind, spirit, or the like, they are parts of bodies and, after all, are included in material things.
    Vacuums are distinct from the space in itself and are included in spatial and temporal things in themselves. In addition, as long as there are no barriers, every particle passes through them. In addition, concerning the properties like mass, universal gravitation, potential energy, and kinetic energy, vacuums can be looked upon as having those whose quantities are zero. Therefore vacuums are included in material things in these books. Now that material things include vacuums, the set of material things are the same as that of spatial and temporal things in themselves.
    Material things have not only spatial positions, temporal positions, qualities, quantities, spatial arrangements, temporal arrangements, and their changes but also mass, universal gravitation, velocity, acceleration, potential energy, kinetic energy, and so forth as properties. They are the properties attributed to every material thing.

FUNCTIONS

    There are some properties (F) each of which has the following properties of (a) and (b).

(a) The whole or part of each of the properties (F) is caused or changed directly or indirectly by the wholes or parts of some other material things or properties.
(b) The whole or part of each of the properties (F) causes or changes the wholes or parts of some other material things or properties directly or indirectly.

    The properties (F) each of which has the properties of (a) and (b) can be called "Functions."
    Some functions are always being caused and changed. For example, every material thing has universal gravitation as a property, and its universal gravitation is always being caused and changed by that of all other material things and is always causing and changing that of all other material things. Therefore universal gravitation is a function and is always being caused and changed.
    In contrast, some functions are not always being caused and changed. Some functions are caused or changed only when some other material things or properties are caused or changed. For example, the whole or part of a neuron's excitement and transmission are caused by the whole of some other neurons' or sensory cells', and the whole of its excitement and transmission causes the wholes or parts of some other neurons', muscle cells' excitement and contraction, or secretory cells' excitement and secretion. Therefore a neuron's excitement and transmission is a function and is caused only when some other properties are caused.
    The functions which material things, bodies, nervous systems, or the like have can be called material functions, bodily functions, nervous functions, or the like. Functions and material functions are the same. (Material) functions include bodily functions and nervous functions. Human functions include walking upright on two legs, running alike, doing the crawl, the butterfly, and so forth, speaking words, writing words, calculating, playing, studying, working, and interpersonal functions.
    Again, the whole or part of a function is caused or changed directly or indirectly by the wholes or parts of some other material things or properties and causes or changes the wholes or parts of some other material things or properties directly or indirectly. Indirectly in a strict sense, those other material things or properties are endless both retrogradely and anterogradely, and we cannot enumerate all of them. For example 1, what can cause a neuron's excitement and transmission include some other neurons or sensory cells' excitements and transmissions, photons, sound waves, physical or chemical stimuli, and what cause or change them, and so they are endless. In addition what can be caused by a neuron's excitement and transmission include some other neurons' excitements and transmissions, muscle cells' excitements and contractions, secretory cells' excitements and secretions, sensations, memories, voluntary movements, involuntary movements, and what are caused or changed by them, and so they are endless. In our daily lives and science, the self-evident of such endless things are omitted. In addition, the excessively indirect are omitted. Also in these books, they have been omitted and will be omitted. For example, when neurons' excitements and transmissions are explained, the supply of oxygen and glucose is omitted as self-evident.
    As was explained earlier, every property has the whole and parts of its own, and functions are included in properties. Therefore every function has the whole and parts of its own. For example, a neuron's excitement and transmission has postsynaptic transmission, exceeding of threshold, excitement, presynaptic transmission, and pause as parts of a function.

NEURONS' EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS

    Nervous systems are not composed only of neurons. They are composed of neurons, neuroglial cells supporting them, their own immune cells, various membranes, cerebrospinal fluid, and so forth. Neurons can exist and function by their support in a broad sense. All the same, the most important for mental functions are neurons' excitements and transmissions.
    A neuron consists spatially of a neuronal body, a lot of dendrites, and an axon diverging into a lot of small ones at its terminal.
    Sensory cells include not only those in a narrow sense in skins, bones, striated muscles, mucous membranes, and so forth but also visual cells, auditory cells, taste cells, and so forth in these books. Metaphorically, the first runners of the series of cells causing sensations are sensory cells. However, not only are they the first cells to excite and transmit but also they convert the photons, sound waves, heat, pressure, and particular substances like salt and sugar outside nervous systems into cells' excitements and transmissions inside.
    Muscle cells include striated muscle cells, smooth muscle cells, and cardiac muscle cells, and their excitements and contractions are caused by neurons' excitements and transmissions. Secretory cells include endocrine cells and exocrine cells, and their excitements and secretions are caused by neurons' excitements and transmissions.
    A neuron stretches an "Axon" long, the axon diverges one after another into a lot of small ones, and many "Axonal Terminals" come closest to a lot of parts of the cellular membranes of some other neurons, muscle cells, or secretory cells. Thus, one axon diverges into a lot of small ones, and so one neuron comes close to not always one but sometimes more than one neuron, muscle cell, or secretory cell.
    Though a sensory cell does not have such a long process as a neuron has as an axon, it stretches some processes, they diverge into a lot of small ones, and many terminals come close to some neurons. Such processes of a sensory cell are also called Axons, and such terminals are also called Axonal Terminals in the same way as a neuron's are called so in these books.
    A neuron or a sensory cell (A) stretches its axon, its axon diverges into a lot of axonal terminals (a), and they comes closest to the parts (b) of the cellular membranes of some other neurons or muscle cells or secretory cells (B). However, there is a cleft between each a and each b. Each a, each b, and the cleft between them can be called a "Synapse" between A and B, and the cleft can be called a "Synaptic Cleft." By the way, synaptic clefts are full of not air but intercellular fluid. Of course, the inner part of a cell is full of intracellular fluid.
    In each synapse, A can be called the "Presynaptic" Cell, and A's material things, functions, or the like can be called the Presynaptic Material Things, the Presynaptic Functions, or the like, and B can be called the "Postsynaptic" Cell, and B's material things, functions, or the like can be called the "Postsynaptic" Material Things, the Postsynaptic Functions, or the like.
    In each synapse, when many neurotransmitters are released from the axonal terminal (a) of the cell (A) to the synaptic cleft, they bind with a lot of receptors on the part (b) of the membrane of the cell (B).
    Again a synapse will be paid attention to.     The above can be said in a synapse. When not a synapse but a cell is paid attention to, the following can be said. Because an axon diverge into a lot of axonal terminals, a neuron or sensory cell (A) comes close to some other neurons, muscle cells, or secretory cells (Bs) and forms a lot of synapses. This can be called A's "Joining" to Bs. In addition, a neuron, muscle cell, or secretory cell (B) has some other neurons or sensory cells (As) come close to itself and has them form a lot of synapses. This can be called B's "Being Joined" to by As. In addition, the neurons or sensory cells by which a neuron is joined to can be called the neuron's "Directly Preceding Cells," and the neurons, muscle cells, or secretory cells which a neuron join to can be called the neuron's "Directly following Cells." After all, it can be said that a neuron is joined to by (1) its directly preceding cells, and joins to (2) its directly following cells, and each of (1)(2) can be more than one. That is, one neuron is joined to by not always one but sometimes more than one directly preceding cell and joins to not always one but sometimes more than one directly following cell.
    Now, in every cell, every neuron included, almost always, with its cellular membrane made a border, and with extracellular part made a reference point, the electrical potential where the intracellular part is negative is formed.
    Every neuron (N) has the following function.

[1] Postsynaptic Transmission
    In the synapses between N and its directly preceding cells, some types of neurotransmitters are released from the axonal terminals of the presynaptic cells into the synaptic cleft; they bind with the receptors on N's membrane; some pieces of intracellular electrical potential in the neighborhoods of the receptors change; those pieces of electrical potential are evened to some extent while added or subtracted. These can be called N's "Postsynaptic Transmission" from N's directly preceding cells or N's "Being Transmitted" to by N's directly preceding cells.

[1-1] Exceeding of the Threshold
    Some of those pieces of potential evened to a degree change in the positive direction and exceed a certain threshold. This can be called N's "Exceeding of the Threshold" or Exceeding the Threshold.

[1-2] Misfire
    None of those pieces of potential exceed the threshold. This can be called (N)'s "Misfire" or Misfiring.

[2] Excitement
    When even one piece of potential exceeding the threshold is caused, pieces of potential exceeding the threshold spread along the membrane of N, its axon included, as if they burst. This can be called N's "Excitement," Exciting, or being Excited.
    N's excitement's spreading through N's axon is specifically called N's "Conduction." Conductions are included in excitements in these books.

[3] Presynaptic Transmission
    Some of those pieces of potential exceeding the threshold reach some of the axonal terminals of N, and some types of neurotransmitters are released from the axonal terminals into the synaptic clefts between N and its directly following cells. This can be called N's "Presynaptic Transmission" or "Transmitting" to its directly following cells.
(Moreover, [1]-[4] can be caused in each of N's directly following cells, and the same can be repeated.)

[4] Pause
    Only for milliseconds (thousandths of a second), N is unable to excite. That can be called N's "Pause" or "Pausing."
    Thereafter N can excite and repeat [1]-[4]. From the beginning, [1]-[4] are caused in the time of hundreds or thousandths of a second. Therefore N can repeat [1]-[4] at the frequency of tens or hundreds times a second.

    The above [1-1][2][3][4] can be called N's "Excitement and Transmission" or "Exciting and Transmitting."
    Let the directly preceding cells of a neuron (N) be A, B,… and let its directly following cells be X, Y,…. A, B,…'s [3]s and N's [1] can be called the transmission from A, B,… to N or A, B,…'s transmitting to N. N's [3] and X, Y,…'s [1]s can be called the transmission from N to X, Y,… or N's transmitting to X, Y,…. Even if A, B,… transmit to N, N does not always excite and transmit. When N's [1] end up with misfire [1-2], N does not excite or transmit. In contrast, when not [1-2] but exceeding of threshold [1-1] is caused, N excites and transmits unless something unusual happens like its axon is cut or its neurotransmitters are depleted.
    A sensory cell is excited by some photons, sound waves, physical and chemical stimuli, and so forth and transmits in the same way as a neuron does. This can be called a Sensory Cell's Excitement and Transmission or Exciting and Transmitting.
    A muscle cell excites in the same way as a neuron does by being transmitted to by some neurons and contracts. This can be called the Muscle Cell's Excitement and Contraction or Exciting and Contracting.
    A secretory cell excites in the same way as a neuron does by being transmitted to by some neurons and secretes. This can be called the Secretory Cell's Excitement and Secretion or Exciting and Secreting.
    When the properties or attributes which are common to all of them are explained, neurons, sensory cells, muscle cells, and secretory cells are referred to as "Neurons" in these books. That is, neurons represent them in these books.
    In addition, the words of "excitement and transmission," "transmission," and so forth designate a concrete and countable function which each neuron or neuronal group has. For example, if there are a hundred neurons, there can be a hundred or less of excitements and transmissions at a moment. Therefore those words are used as countable nouns in these books.
    After all, a neuron is transmitted to by not always one but sometimes more than one cell and transmits to not always one but sometimes more than one cell.
    The whole of [1-1][2][3][4] or the part of [1-2] of a neuron's excitement and transmission is caused by the wholes of [1-1][2][3][4] of some of its directly preceding cells' excitements and transmissions, and the whole of [1-1][2][3][4] of a neuron's excitement and transmission causes the wholes of [1-1][2][3][4] or parts of [1-2] of its directly following cells' excitements and transmissions. Therefore a neuron's excitement and transmission is a function.
    A neuron's excitement and transmission as a function has each of [1-1][1-2][2][3][4] as a part of a function.
    Like a neuron either excites and transmits or ends up with misfire, some functions have more than one choice. Rather, most functions of animals, which are complex, usually have a lot of choices. For example, animals' escaping functions have various choices of running away at once, hiding at once, hiding after running away for a while, running away after counterattacking for a while, and so forth.
    However, concerning a neuron's excitement and transmission, it is better to look upon misfire [1-2] as a half-way part of the whole of [1-1][2][3][4]. Thus, in some functions, only a part is sometimes caused. In addition, it is probable that none of the other material things or properties which the whole could cause are caused only by a part's being caused. For example, in neurons' excitements and transmissions, none of the directly following cells' excitements and transmissions are caused only by misfires' being caused.
    Not only the whole of [1-1][2][3][4] but also, each of the parts of [1-1][2][3] is a function. That is because some of the directly preceding cells' excitements and transmissions cause [1-1] or [1-2], [1-1] causes [2], [2] causes [3], and [3] causes [1-1] or [1-2] of its directly following cells. Thus, in some functions, some of their parts are functions, too.
    When the exceeding of the threshold [1-1] is caused, the following [2][3][4] are caused, and the whole of the excitement and transmission is caused. Even if a neuron is transmitted to by some of its directly following cells, when [1-1] is not caused, the following parts are not caused, the whole is not caused, and it ends up with misfire [1-2]. If its axon should be cut or if its neurotransmitters should be depleted, its presynaptic transmission [3] would not be caused even if [1-1] is caused. However, the cells which do not have any abilities to transmit thus do not satisfy the necessary properties of neurons and can no longer be looked upon as neurons.

SHORT-TERM REPETITION OF EXCITEMENT AND TRANSMISSION

The [1-1][2][3][4] which has been explained is one excitement and transmission continuing for milliseconds (thousandths of a second). This can be called a neuron's "One (Super-short-term) Excitement and Transmission" or Exciting and Transmitting Once (for Super-short time). Practically, once it is caused, it is repeated at a certain frequency of tens or hundreds times a second continually for seconds. Such a repetition can be called a neuron's "Short-term (Continual) Repetition" of Excitement and Transmission or Repeating Excitement and Transmission (Continually) for a Short Time. However, almost every neuron either does such repetition or, from the beginning, does not excite and transmit anyway. Therefore such repetition can also be called a neuron's Excitement and Transmission or Exciting and Transmitting, and the words of excitement and transmission usually designate such a short-term continual repetition in these books. Short-term continual repetition need to be clearly distinguished from long-term intermittent repetition as will be explained later.

NECESSARY FUNCTIONS, CAUSES, AND OBJECTS

    As was defined earlier, the properties without which a thing could not be looked upon as that thing can be called the Necessary Properties of or for the thing. For example, the ability to excite and transmit is one of the necessary properties of neurons, and so a cell without that ability could not be looked upon as a neuron. A neuron has the ability to excite and transmit as a necessary property.
    Now, when the necessary properties of a material thing involve some functions or the tendencies or abilities of some functions, those functions can be called the Necessary Functions of or for the material thing, the Necessary Functions which the material thing has, or the Necessary Functions attributed to the material thing. For example, a neuron has the ability to excite and transmit as a necessary property, that excitement and transmission is a function, and the neuron have excitement and transmission as a necessary function.
    Moreover, functions also have their properties and their necessary properties. By definition, a function has the following necessary property:

the whole or part of a function is caused or changed by the wholes or parts of

(1) some other material things or properties

and causes or changes the wholes or parts of

(2) some other material things or properties.

    Moreover, some of (1) or some of (2) are sometimes involved in some of a function's necessary properties. For example, neurons' excitements and transmissions which cannot cause any striated muscle cells' excitements and contractions cannot be called the excitements and transmissions of the neurons of a motor nerve, and their necessary properties involve some striated muscle cells' excitements and contractions. When some of (1) are involved in some of the necessary properties of a function, the involved can be called the function's Necessary Causes, and when some of (2) are involved in some of the necessary properties of a function, the involved can be called the function's Necessary Objects or Effects. For example, the necessary objects of the excitements and transmissions of the neurons of a motor nerve include some striated muscle cells' excitements and contractions.

NECESSARY AND DIRECT PARTS AND DECISIVE PARTS OF FUNCTIONS

In a function, there is a part which is indispensable for the wholes or parts of one of its necessary objects to be caused or changed and which causes or changes that necessary object the least indirectly in that function. Such a part can be called the function's "Necessary and Direct Part" for the necessary object. For example, in a neuron's excitement and transmission, if its [3] presynaptic transmission is not caused, none of its directly following cells' excitements and transmissions, some of which are its necessary objects, are caused. In addition, [3] causes them the least indirectly in a neuron's excitement and transmission. Therefore [3] presynaptic transmission is the necessary and direct part of a neuron's excitement and transmission for anything.
However, in each function, when a certain part of each of them is caused or changed, its necessary and direct part, too, is certain to be caused or changed and the wholes or parts of its necessary objects are certain to be caused or changed. For example, in a neuron's excitement and transmission, when its exceeding of the threshold [1-1] is caused, its presynaptic transmission [3] is also caused, and the wholes or parts of its directly following cells' excitements and transmissions, some of which are its necessary objects, are also caused. Such a part can be called the function's "Decisive" Part. For example, in a neuron's excitement and transmission, the exceeding of the threshold [1-1] is its decisive part, and presynaptic transmission [3] is its necessary and direct part. Like this example, in each of some functions, its necessary and direct part and its decisive part do not overlap. In each of some others, those parts overlap completely or incompletely. Moreover, in each of some functions, those parts and its whole are the same. For example, it is true of universal gravitation.

FUNCTIONS' FUNCTIONING

In a function, that its necessary and direct part is not caused or changed, practically that its decisive part is caused or changed, and as a result that none of the wholes or parts of its necessary objects are caused or changed cannot be called the function's functioning. For example, in a neuron's excitement and transmission, that its presynaptic transmission [3] is not caused, practically that its exceeding of the threshold [1-1] is not caused, and as a result that none of its directly following cells' excitements and transmissions, some of which are its necessary objects, are caused cannot be called the neuron's excitement and transmission's functioning. Therefore that the necessary and direct part of a function is caused or changed, practically that its decisive part is caused or changed, and as a result that the wholes or parts of its necessary objects are caused or changed can be called the function's "Functioning" to its necessary objects. For example, in a neuron's excitement and transmission, that its presynaptic transmission [3] is caused, practically that its exceeding of threshold [1-1] is caused, and as a result that the wholes or parts of its directly following cells' excitements and transmissions, some of which are its necessary objects, are caused can be called the neuron's excitement and transmission's functioning to them. In addition, when the necessary objects are self-evident, with them omitted, a function's functioning to its necessary objects can be called the function's Functioning. In addition, a function's functioning can also be called the function's Being Caused. That is, the words of a function's being caused and those of its functioning designate the same thing. In addition, when the link between a material thing (1) and one of its necessary functions, the link between that function and one of its necessary objects, and the link between that necessary object and the material thing (2) which have it are self-evident, that function's functioning to that objects can be called that material thing (1)'s Functioning to that material thing (2). For example, that the excitement and transmission of a neuron of a motor nerve functions to the excitement and contraction of a striated muscle cell can be called that neuron's functioning to that striated muscle cell.

FUNCTIONS' TIMELY FUNCTIONING

Usually in living things, above all, in animals, a function functions by being functioned to by the functions which are its necessary causes. Therefore it is better to modify the word of "functioning" with the words like "by being functioned to by ..." or "timely." We are relieved by such timeliness. For example, if the neurons directly following sensory cells excited and transmitted without being transmitted to by them, sensations would be chaotic and we would feel pain without any stimulation, disorder, or inflammation. However, if the words like "timely" or "by being functioned to by …" were always used, sentences would be complicated. Therefore they are used only when such timeliness need to be emphasized.

MATERIAL THINGS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

    Space and time excluded, things in themselves are either spatial and temporal things in themselves (M) or their properties, their properties' properties, and so forth (P), and those properties (P) are either functions (PF) or properties other than functions (PP). The words like material things, matter, substances, living things, animals, and human beings are vague on whether or not they mean both (M) and (P). In these books, those words means both (M) and (P). Moreover, when it is necessary to emphasize that those words means functions, too, the words like a Material Thing and its Material Functions, a Material Thing and its Functions, a Living Thing and its Living Functions, a Living Thing and its Function, or the like will be used in these books.
    Once the meanings of those words are defined so and after the vacuum was included in material things as was done in one of the above chapters, the words "material things and their functions" or "material things" mean all things in themselves excluding space and time.
    The words like a material thing's "existing" or a material thing and its functions' existing are vague on whether or not they also means its functions' (timely) functioning. In these books, those words means it, too. Moreover, when it is necessary to emphasize that they means it, too, the words like a material thing and its functions' "Existing and Functioning", the material thing's Existing and Functioning, or the like will be used in these books.
    However, when those words are always used, sentences will be complicated. Therefore the words like a Material Thing's Existing, an Animal's Living, or the like will usually be used in these books, and, even then, those words mean functions' (timely) functioning, too.
    By the way, sometimes, a function is recognized, and thereafter the material thing which it is attributed to is recognized. For example, in the history of biology, after the functions of heredity and evolution were found, the material things of genes was found. In such a case, not the words like a material thing's function but those like a function are used in these books.

POSSIBILITIES, SITUATIONS, AND NATURE

    The possibility of a thing's existing or functioning or being caused or changed can be called the Possibility of the thing, too.
    The possibility of a thing includes the possibilities of some other things. For example, the possibility of a neuron's exciting and transmitting includes the possibilities of some directly preceding cells' exciting and transmitting, the supply of oxygen, glucose, and so forth.
    Living things, living functions, animals, animal functions, individuals, individual functions, human beings, human functions, and so forth will be defined later. Before they are defined, their situations and nature will be defined.
    As was explained above, the possibility of a thing includes the possibilities of some other things. Those other things can be called the "Situation" or "Nature" of or for the thing. The nature of a species of living things includes some other species. For example, the nature for human beings includes some other animals, plants, and microorganisms and their functions. In addition, the situation of an individual includes some other individuals of the same species. For example, the situation of a human individual includes some other human beings and their interpersonal functions.
    It is impossible to enumerate all the material things and their functions included in the nature or the situation of a thing. For example, when we enumerate the situation of a neuron's excitement and transmission, it involves some of its directly preceding cells' excitements and transmissions, the supply of oxygen, glucose, and so forth, the palpitation of the heart, the respiration, the digestion and absorption of food, the chain of food, and so forth, and they are endless. This is the same as the material things and properties causing or changing the whole or part of a function are endless, which has already been explained. In our daily lives and science, out of them, those which are self-evident and too indirect are omitted. These books, too, have omitted and will omit them. For example, when the necessary situation for a neuron's excitement and transmission is explained, the explanation of plants' photosynthesis, food chains, and so forth are omitted. Of course, they are not omitted when the nature for the living things on the earth is explained.

TENDENCIES AND ABILITIES

    The possibility of a thing includes the possibilities of some other things. In contrast, the part of the possibility of a thing inside it can be called the thing's Own Possibility. Out of things' own possibilities, their tendencies and their abilities, which will be explained below, are significant. Anyway, the tendency or ability of a thing is one of its own properties, and does not include the possibilities, tendencies or abilities of any other things.
    When a thing is caused or changed without the competition among the same kind of thing, its own possibility can be called its "Ability" or Capability (to be caused or changed). In contrast, when a thing is caused or changed or is not caused or changed in the midst of competition with the same kind of thing, its own possibility can be called its "Tendency" (to be caused). For example, if a neuron is isolated and tried if it excites and transmits by electrical stimulation, there is no competition among neurons, and a part of the ability of the isolated neuron matters. A neuron's ability to excite and transmit not under such a experiment but under natural conditions is having a lot of receptors on the cellular membrane, stretching its axon, making it diverge into a lot of axonal terminals, and forming a lot of synapses, releasing a lot of neurotransmitters from its axonal terminals, and so forth. In contrast, when a lot of neuron compose some neuronal groups, and they converge, there are some competitions among neuronal groups, and their tendencies matter. When a lot of excitements and transmissions of neuronal groups are caused in a converging neuronal groups which will be explained later, those exciting and transmitting the earliest, the most continuously, at the highest density, the most widely, and the closest to the center go through, while making the others disappear, and reach the destination. Such earliness, continuity, density, width, and closeness to the center of a neuronal group's excitement and transmission are its tendency to be caused in a converging neuronal group.
    As will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES," in limited egos, tendencies matter, and in intentional functions, abilities matter. The intentional functions particular to human beings include walking upright on two legs, running alike, doing the crawl, the butterfly, and so forth, speaking words, writing words, thinking, playing, studying, working, and interpersonal functions, and in them, abilities matter. The outlines of limited egos include being sticky, showing off the self, controlling anything, and destroying anything, and in them, tendencies matter.

    When the link between one material thing and one necessary function which it has is self-evident, the tendency or ability of that function can be called the Tendency or Ability of that material thing. For example, the ability of a neuron's excitement and transmission can be called that neuron's ability.
    The increase of the ability of a thing can be called the "Activation" of the thing or the thing's being Activated.

ABILITIES OF NEURONS

The ability of a neuron('s excitement and transmission) is having a lot of able receptors on the cellular membrane, stretching its axon, making it diverge into a lot of axonal terminals, and forming a lot of synapses, releasing a lot of able neurotransmitters from its axonal terminals, and so forth. Thus, not only neurons but also neurotransmitters and receptors have their abilities. Their abilities are those to change the extra-intracellular voltage when they are bound.
A neuron's ability is decreased temporarily for seconds by, simply, exciting and transmitting or, strictly, the short-term continual repetition. However, the ability is increased by the short-term continual repetition's being repeated intermittently in the long time from seconds to years. That ability is decreased without such repetition. This is the substance of the importance of repetition in learning, which is experienced in our daily lives and science. Such repetition can be called a neuron's excitement and transmission's "Long-Term Intermittent Repetition" or Being Repeated Intermittently in a Long Time. A neuron's ability is increased by such repetition and is decreased by little or no such repetition. Mainly, such repetition increases the tendencies of recollections of images, which will be explained later in this book, and the abilities of intentional functions and the tendencies of limited egos, which will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES."

PROMOTIONS⇔RESTRAINTS

    The words of "excitement and transmission," "transmission," "ability," and "activation" explained earlier, "promotion" and "restraint" which will be explained below, and so forth designate concrete and countable things which each neuron, neuronal group, or the like has. For example, for a neuron, if there are ten directly preceding cells, there can be ten or less of promoting or restraining transmissions. Therefore those words are used as countable nouns in these books.
    By a function (P)'s functioning to another function (Q), when the possibility of Q's functioning gets larger, the P can be called the "Promotion," Prompt, Promoting Function, or Prompting Function for the the thing Q or P's Promoting or Prompting Q.
    In contrast to promotions, by a function (R)'s functioning to another function (S), when the possibility of S's functioning gets smaller, R can be called the "Restraint" or Restraining Function on the S or R's Restraining S.
    Though it is the promoting transmissions and restraining transmissions of neurons that are typical of promotions and restraints, they can be found in interpersonal relations and the society. For example 1, violence often restrain some individuals' functions. This is a kind of violation of liberal rights. However, by restraining the violence which restrains some individuals' functions, some kinds of powers can prevent them from being restrained. That is a kind of protection of liberal rights. For example 2, some kinds of power can promote human functions by supplying water and food, medicine, information, and so forth. That is a kind of security of social rights. In addition, they can be found in the animal bodies outside nervous systems. For example, when a group of endocrine secretory cells secretes a kind of hormone exceedingly, another group secretes another kind of hormone which restrains their secretion. That is a kind of homeostasis.
    Now in a nervous system, when a neuron's excitement and transmission (PT) promotes its directly following cells' excitements and transmissions (Qs) by reducing Qs' extra-intracellular voltage and by facilitating Qs' exceeding of the threshold, PT can be called the Promoting Transmission, Promotion, Prompting Transmission, or Prompt for Qs or PT's Promoting or Prompting Qs.
    In contrast to promoting transmissions, when a neuron's excitement and transmission (RT) restrains its directly following cells' excitements and transmissions (Ss) by increasing extra-intracellular voltage and by impeding Ss' exceeding of threshold, RT can be called the Restraining Transmission or Restraint on Ss or RT's Restraining Ss.
    Sometimes, a neuron is joined to by more than one directly preceding cell and gets a mixture of promoting and restraining transmissions. Usually in such a case, when it has got more promoting ones, it excites and transmits, and when it has got more restraining ones, it does not. All the same, more strictly, the question is not such a simple calculation of the number of cells but the calculation of the quantity of electrical potential.
    The restraints in nervous systems are indispensable for rest, sleep, and the reduction of physical pain and metal pain like fear and anxiety. Simply, we could not rest or sleep, or reduce pain without restraints.

FUNCTIONS' STOPS

    In contrast to a function's functioning, a function's not functioning, that is, its necessary and direct part's not being caused or changed, practically its decisive part's not being caused or changed can be called the function or the material thing (whose link with the function is self-evident)'s "Stop" or Stopping. A function's stop is sometimes that its necessary and direct part and decisive part are not caused and that some other parts are caused. Of course, it is often that no parts are caused. For example, a neuron's stop is sometimes that its misfire [1-2] is caused. Of course, it is often that even its misfire [1-2] is not caused.
    Functions' stops, above all, neurons' stops are very important for mental functions. As will be explained in the chapters below, because some series of neurons actually joining in a neuronal group excite and transmit and the others stop, it is premised that the subtleness of sight, sound, pain, or the like appears. If all the neurons in a neuronal group either excited and transmitted or stopped, sights would be completely white or black in all the visual field, sounds would be piercingly loud or deathly silent. Quantities like brightness, loudness, the intensity of pain are often converted into the density of a neuronal group's excitement and transmission. From the beginning, so that density can exist, some series of neurons actually joining in a neuronal group need to excite and transmit, and the others need to stop.
    Thus, most of functions' stops can be looked upon as functions. Functions' stops which are looked upon as functions are included in functions in these books.
    Promotions and restraints are their changing the properties of possibilities of other functions, and so they are included in functions. Even when a function promotes another function, the latter is not always caused. When more than one function promotes another function, the latter is often caused. Even when a function restrains another function, the latter is not always stopped. When more than one function restrains another function, the latter is often stopped. In human relations and human societies, it may be better for such a stop to be called "Deterrence." For example, there were some terms involving this word in the Cold War.

FUNCTIONS' AROUSALS

    That a part (P) of a function which can cause or change its decisive part (DP) is caused or changed can be called the function's "Arousal" or Arising. A function's arousal includes that P is caused or changed but that DP is not caused or changed. That is, it is probable that a function does not function and is not caused and does stop even if it arises. A function's arising does not always mean its functioning or being caused. For example, that a neuron's postsynaptic transmission [1] is caused is its excitement and transmission's arising. Even if [1] is caused, when the exceeding of the threshold [1-1] is not caused, that is, when [1] end up with the misfire [1-2], presynaptic transmission [3] is not caused, and the neuron does not excite or transmit and does stop. This is the neuron's (excitement and transmission's) arising but stopping.
    The following is one of the most important example of arousals. As will be explained later, usually, though a lot of images' sources arise, a limited number (n) of them are recollected. This is the substance of our daily idea that we cannot think of more than one thing at any moment.
    The following is the case as far as neurons' excitements and transmissions and some other living functions are concerned. If no pause [4] was caused, the neuron could transmit to and function to its directly following cells. All the same, it is impossible for [1-1][2][3] to be caused and for [4] not to be caused. Though, by definition, it is a neuron's functioning that presynaptic transmission [3] which is a necessary and direct part is caused, it is a neuron's functioning, practically, that the exceeding of the threshold [1-1] which is a decisive part is caused, and, more practically, that the whole of [1-1][2][3][4] is caused.

COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE STOPS

In contrast to a function's arising, a function's not even arising can be called the function's "Complete" Stop or Completely Stopping. In contrast to a function's complete stop, a function's arising and not functioning can be called the function's "Incomplete" Stop or Stopping Incompletely.
Though the word of "incomplete" may make a bad impression, each of us need to stop functions falling into a vicious circle, which will be explained in "FACING TENDENCIES FALLING INTO A VICIOUS CIRCLE," not completely but incompletely in the first stage in order to decrease the tendencies falling into a vicious circle.

LIVING THINGS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

    The material things which have the property (1) of synthesizing some macromolecules like proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids, that (2) of consisting of them and some low molecules, and that (3) of reproducing some material things which have the same necessary properties as they have can be called "Living Things." For example, a gene has the property (1) of synthesizing proteins and nucleic acid, that (2) of consisting of them and some low molecules, and that (3) of replicating itself, and is not only an important part of a larger living thing but also itself a living thing. Living things include genes, cells, individuals, and so forth.
    The functions which living things have can be called Living Functions. In these books, living functions include not only those of individual but also those of groups of living things. Then they include the genesis of living things themselves, the struggle for existence, symbiosis, the evolution of a species to another species, the existence or extinction of a species.
    Living thing and their properties, their properties' properties, and so forth including functions can be called "Living Things and Their Living Functions," Living Things and Their Functions, or Living Things. A living thing and its functions' existing and functioning can be called its "Living" or "Life." A living thing and its functions' coming to exist and function can be called its "Being Borne" or "Birth," and its coming not to exist or function can be called its "Dying" or "Death." For example, not only individuals but also cells which compose individuals are dying sooner or later.
    Living things are included in material things, and living functions in material functions. However, usually in our daily lives, material things excluding living things are called Material things, and material functions excluding living functions are called Material Functions. These books, too, sometimes use those words in such a way.

INDIVIDUALS

There are some living things which can be living things when they are spatially separated from the other living things. The living things which can be living things when they are spatially separated from the other living things can be called "Individuals." Most animals like insects, fishes, birds, cats, dogs, human beings, and so forth found in our daily lives are individuals.

BODIES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

    There are some individuals whose functions of sensations or recollections of images are premised to cause some things appearing as mental phenomena and which have motor functions. Such individuals can be called "Bodies" or "Animals." For example, it is premised that the neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions from the retinas to optic nerves to visual areas on occipital lobes cause things appearing on a visual sensation. In addition, a neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions from frontal lobes via spinal cords to motor nerves and striated muscles' contraction cause voluntary movements. An individual having such functions is the body of a vertebrate.
    The functions which bodies have can be called Bodily Functions, Physical Functions, or Animal Functions. They include the expansion and contraction of hearts, blood vessels, and lungs, the movement, and digestion and absorption of digestive tracts, neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions, muscular groups' excitements and contractions, secretory groups' excitements and secretions, involuntary movements, voluntary movements, instinctive functions, sensations, memories, and recollections of images.
    Bodies and their properties, their properties' properties, and so forth including functions can be called "Bodies and their Bodily Functions," Bodies and their Functions, or Bodies, Animals and Their Animal Functions, Animals and Their Functions, or Animals.

ANIMALS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Bodies can be called "Animals," Animal Bodies, or Animal Individuals, too, and bodily functions can be called Animal functions, too. However, in our daily lives, the word of bodies is used for the contrast with minds or spirits and does not imply them. Neither does it imply things appearing as mental phenomena. In contrast, the word of animals and the words of human beings can imply them. Therefore bodies and their functions, and the things appearing as mental phenomena which some parts of them are premised to cause can be called Animals and their Animal Functions, Animals and their Functions, or Animals (in a Broad Sense). That is, the words of animals and their functions are different from those of bodies and their functions in that the former sometimes implies things appearing as mental phenomena.

HUMAN BEINGS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

    The animals which belong to the species of "Homo sapience" can be called "Human Beings" or Humans, the functions which human beings has can be called "Human Functions," and human beings and their properties, their properties' properties, and so forth including functions can be called "Human Beings and their Human Functions," Human Beings and Their Functions, Human Beings, or Humans. Moreover, for the same reason explained in the above section, human beings and their functions, and the things appearing as mental phenomena which some parts of them are premised to cause can be called Human Beings and Their Human Function, Human Beings and Their Functions, Human Beings, Humans, Human Individuals, Individuals, Individual Persons, Persons, or Us (in a Broad Sense).
    Human functions include not only the bodily functions enumerated earlier but also walking upright on two legs, running alike, doing the crawl, butterfly, and so forth, speaking words, writing words, calculating, playing, studying, working, and interpersonal functions.
    Excluding animals and human beings in a broad sense explained above, material things include living things, living things include animals, and animals include human beings. Material functions include living functions, living functions include animal functions, and animal functions include human functions.

NEURONAL GROUPS' EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS

NERVOUS SYSTEMS

An organ which consists of neurons and sensory cells and neuroglial cell supporting them in a narrow sense, cerebrospinal fluid containing them, dura maters, pia maters, and arachnoid membranes enclosing them, immune cells particular to this system, and so forth can be called a "Nervous System" or Neuronal System. Not only central nervous systems but also peripheral ones and autonomic ones are included in nervous systems. Moreover, sensory cells, sensory group, and sensory organs in a narrow sense like eyeballs, inner ears are included in nervous systems in these books. Moreover, sensory cells and neurons are also distributed through organs and tissues which cannot looked upon as sensory organs in a narrow sense. Concerning them, only the sensory cells and the neurons are included in nervous systems in these books.
The following can be called "Neuronal Groups."

UNITARY NEURONAL GROUPS

A group of neurons where neuronal bodies gather into what is called a nucleus or ganglion and where the axons bunch into what is called a nerve can be called a "Unitary Neuronal Group."
Each neuron in a unitary neuronal group is joined to by some neurons in some other unitary neuronal groups. This can be called a unitary neuronal group's Being Joined to by some other neuronal groups. Each neuron in a unitary neuronal group joins to some other neurons in some other unitary neuronal groups. This can be called a unitary neuronal group's Joining to some other neuronal groups. Accordingly, a neuronal group is joined to by not always one but sometimes more than one neuronal group and joins to not always one but sometimes more than one neuronal group.

SENSORY GROUPS

    A group of sensory cells can be called a "Sensory Group."
    Though a sensory cell does not have such a long process as a neuron has as an axon in a narrow sense, it joins to some neurons and has the ability to transmit to them with some processes which can be called Axons in a Broad Sense in the same way as a neuron does. In addition, a sensory group joins to some unitary neuronal groups in the same way as a unitary neuronal group does. Such sensory groups are included in unitary neuronal groups in these books.
    In contrast, not a sensory group is joined to or transmitted to by any neuronal groups. Sensory groups are made to excite and transmit by such situations outside nervous systems as photons, sound waves, pressure, heat, and inflammation. Such situations are direct ones for nervous systems. The sources of photons, sound waves, and heat and the causes of inflammation, and so forth are their indirect situations. In a complex neuronal group causing a sensation, the sensory group is metaphorically a first runner.
    In taste sensations, olfactory sensations, somatic sensations, and autonomic sensations, their sensory cells do not gather orderly into their sensory organs in a narrow sense but diffuse randomly into general organs or tissues like tongues, nasal cavities, skins, and mucus membranes. All the same, the set of sensory cells diffusing thus but causing a kind of sensation is also called a Sensory Group in these books. In addition, the organs or tissues where such sensory cells diffuse are sometimes called Sensory Organs (in a Broad Sense) in these books.

COMPLEX NEURONAL GROUPS

Linear neuronal groups, neuronal ways, diverging neuronal groups, converging neuronal groups, and paired neuronal groups which will be explained below, and the mixtures of some of them can be called "Complex Neuronal Groups."

LINEAR NEURONAL GROUPS

When each neuron or sensory cell in a unitary neuronal group or sensory group [A] joins to a neuron in another unitary neuronal group [B], each neuron in [B] joins to a neuron in another unitary neuronal group [C], and the same are repeated; [A][B][C]… can be called a "Linear Neuronal Group."

NEURONAL WAYS

When a unitary or complex neuronal group or sensory group [A] joins to a linear neuronal group [B], [B] joins to unitary or complex neuronal group, a muscle group, or a secretory group [C], and when [A][C] have some clear functions like sensations, memories, contraction, and secretion, and when [B] do not have any clear functions other than excitements and transmissions; [B] can be called the "Neuronal Way" from [A] to [C].

DIVERGING NEURONAL GROUPS

When each neuron in a unitary neuronal group [A] joins to some neurons in each of some neuronal groups [B][B'], each neuron in each of [B][B'] joins to some neurons in each of some unitary neuronal groups [C][C'][C''][C'''], and the same are repeated; [A][B][B'][C][C'][C''][C''']… can be called a "Diverging" Neuronal Group. In addition, neuronal groups diverging wildly can be called Diffusing ones.
For example, the neuronal group which individual images' sources which are being generated go through, which will be explained in the chapter "MEMORIES," is a diverging neuronal group, and the neuronal group which impulses go through, which will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES," is a diffusing neuronal group.

CONVERGING NEURONAL GROUPS

When each neuron in a unitary neuronal group [Z] is joined to by some neurons in each of some unitary neuronal groups [Y][Y'], each neuron in each of [Y][Y'] are joined to by some neurons in each of some unitary neuronal groups [X][X'][X''][X'''], and the same are repeated; [Z][Y][Y'][X][X'][X''][X''']… can be called a "Converging" Neuronal Group.
For example, the neuronal group from the unitary neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources to the neuronal group replaying sources, which will be explained in the chapter "MEMORIES," is a converging neuronal group. Therefore, though a lot of individual images' sources arise, a limited number or less of them are recollected.

PAIRED NEURONAL GROUPS

In most nervous systems, there are some pairs of neuronal groups, and the two neuronal groups composing each pair are symmetrical though some parts of them cross and some parts join to each other. For example, in each of vertebrates' nervous systems, there is a pair of neuronal groups from the retinae via optic nerves to visual areas on occipital lobes though optic nerves cross each other. Such paired neuronal groups are included in neuronal groups and in complex neuronal groups in these books.
As will be explained later, it is premised that paired neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions and some functions processing them cause things appearing beyond sensory organs. For example, your face appearing to me on a visual sensation with both eyes seems to be in the position beyond my eyes. In contrast, when I close my right eye, your face appearing on a visual sensation with my left eye seems to be in the position of my left eye. In addition, because there is a pair, an individual which suffer a disorder in one of the pair sometimes overcomes the disorder. That is true of not only nervous systems but also eyes, ears, lungs, kidneys, limbs, testicles, ovaries, and so forth. In addition, in a nervous system, because the cerebrum is paired, the dominant hemisphere and the division of functions between two hemispheres matters.

NEURONAL GROUPS

The above linear neuronal groups, neuronal ways, diverging neuronal groups, converging neuronal groups, and paired neuronal groups and the mixtures of some of them can be called Complex Neuronal Groups. In addition, unitary neuronal groups, sensory groups, and complex neuronal groups can be called Neuronal Groups. However, these books usually explain functions involving complex ones, the word of neuronal groups usually designate complex ones in these books.

SERIES OF NEURONS ACTUALLY JOINING

    In a (complex) neuronal group, not all the neurons join indirectly. If all did so, for example, a white spot in the retina might occupy all the visual field in the visual area on the occipital lobe.
    In a neuronal group, each series of neurons which actually join directly or indirectly can be called a "Series of Neurons Actually Joining." When they are defined so, a neuronal group can be re-defined as the bunch of a lot of series of neurons actually joining.
    `Practically in a series of neurons actually joining, all the neuron's exciting and transmitting can be called the series' Excitement and Transmission or Exciting and Transmitting, and some neurons' not exciting and transmitting can be called the series' Not Exciting and Transmitting or Stopping. Metaphorically, if one of the runners of a relay team falls, the team loses.

NEURONAL GROUPS RETAINING SPATIAL POSITIONS

    When we imagine that the bunch of the axons of a neuronal group is cut in a round slice like a stem of asparagus is cut, it turns out that each series of neurons actually joining has a spatial relative position in the slice as a property or attribute. Unless neurons join to others or are joined to by others in one-to-many way or in many-to-one way again and again or axons are tangled, the spatial relative position of each series of neurons actually joining is retained to a great degree in a neuronal group. Otherwise, for example, a straight line appearing on a visual sensation would be irregular curves. Such neuronal groups as the spatial relative position of each series of neurons actually joining is retained to a great degree can be called "Neuronal Groups Retaining Spatial Position."
    Most neuronal groups are ones retaining spatial position. This is because, in both phylogenesis and ontogenesis, such development as neurons join to others or are joined to by others in one-to-many way or in many-to-one way or axons are tangled are far more difficult than straight development.
    In such a neuronal group's excitement and transmission, the spacial position of whether each series of neurons actually joining excites and transmits or stop is retained. Thereby the density of the excitements and transmissions of each part and its spatial position and arrangement is also retained. For example, the series transmitting shadows in sights excite and transmit at law density, and those transmitting highlights excite and transmit at high density, and those are retained from the retinas at least to the occipital lobes. The neuronal groups and ways which the sources of sensations and images go through need to retain spatial positions and to be neuronal groups retaining spatial positions and are actually so.
    In contrast, the neuronal groups which cause smooth muscles' contractions or endocrine glands' secretions do not need to retain them. All the same for the above reason, they also retain them more or less.

NEURONAL GROUPS' INSTANT EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS

In a series of neurons actually joining in a neuronal group, the time (T) from the time when the neuron which is, so to speak, the first runner excites and transmits to the time when the neuron which is, so to speak, the last runner excites and transmits can be called "Intra-Series Transmitting Time (T)." In every neuronal group, the difference of T is thousandth or hundredths of a second, and can be ignored. Such neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions can be called neuronal groups' "Instant" Excitements and Transmissions or Exciting and Transmitting Instantly.
In a neuronal group's instant excitement and transmission, not only the spatial positions but also the temporal positions of series of neurons actually joining's excitements and transmissions are retained to a great degree. Otherwise, for example, the movement of an object performing uniform linear motion appearing on a visual sensation would be zigzag running. In addition, in a neuronal group's instant excitement and transmission, the frequencies of series of neurons actually joining's excitements and transmissions are retained. Otherwise, for example, even the color of an object appearing on a visual sensation would change randomly. Therefore neuronal groups' instant excitements and transmissions can also be called Neuronal Groups' (Instant) Excitements and Transmissions Retaining Temporal Positions.

NEURONAL GROUPS' EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS

    In summary, in general, a neuronal group's excitement and transmission is the instant excitement and transmission retaining temporal positions more or less of a neuronal group retaining spatial positions more or less. In contrast to such general cases, the instant excitement and transmission retaining temporal positions to a great degree of a neuronal group retaining spatial positions to a great degree can be called the Instant Excitement and Transmission Retaining Temporal Positions of a Neuronal Group Retaining Spatial Positions.
    More in details, a neuronal group's excitement and transmission can be defined as follows. That in a neuronal group retaining spatial positions more or less, some series of neurons actually joining instantly excite and transmit while retaining temporal positions more or less and that the other series stop can be called the Neuronal Group's Excitement and Transmission or Exciting and Transmitting. In contrast, that in a neuronal group, all the series stop can be called the Neuronal Group' s Stop or Stopping.
    In addition, the presynaptic transmissions of the neurons which belong to the unitary neuronal group which is, so to speak, the last runner in a complex neuronal group can be called the complex neuronal group's Presynaptic Transmission or Transmitting. In contrast, the postsynaptic transmissions of the neurons which belong to the unitary neuronal group which is, so to speak, a first runner in a complex neuronal group can be called the complex neuronal group's Postsynaptic Transmission or Being Transmitted.

NEURONAL GROUPS' INNATE OR ACQUIRED ACTIVATIONS

In order for memory or what is called "learning" to exist and function, first, neurons activatable acquiredly need to exist and function, and second, neuronal groups containing them need to exist and function. For example 1, when I see another particular person, in order for his or her eyes to be memorized, the part of a neuronal group which memorizes the white of his or her eyes needs to be activated at high density, and the part which memorizes their pupils needs to be activated at low density. For example 2, in order for a child to learn that mosquitoes bite skins, it is necessary that there are some neuronal ways between the neuronal group memorizing and storing mosquitoes' images and those memorizing and storing biting's images and that those neuronal ways are activated when his or her skins are bitten by mosquitoes. Such activations can be called Neuronal Groups' Acquired Activations or Being Acquiredly Activated.
In contrast, the neuronal groups causing sensations, pleasure or displeasure sensations, drives, instinctive functions, and autonomic functions have already been activated enough to cause those functions when the neuronal groups' frames have been completed. Otherwise, the babies of animals cannot exist. Such activations can be called Neuronal Groups' Innate Activations (by Genes) or Being Activated Innately (by Genes).

THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

    When appearing properties are taken into consideration, sights, sounds, smells, dizziness, taste, pain, hotness, coldness, palpitation, dyspnea, nausea, hunger, thirst, images, ideas, colors, brightness, high-law and loudness, and so forth can be called Things Appearing (as Mental Phenomena). Things appearing as mental phenomena's existing or being premised to exist can be called things' Appearing (as Mental Phenomena). For example, the display of my personal computer, its keyboard, my hands striking it are appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes, the sounds of striking the keyboard are appearing on an auditory sensation with both ears, and slight hunger is appearing on an autonomic sensation to me, a writer of this book, at present.
    The words "things appearing (as mental phenomena)" sometimes designate sights, images, and so forth and sometimes designate things in themselves like material things, bodies, and so forth which are premised to be represented as appearing things. The words "things appearing (as mental phenomena)" designate the former, that is, sights, images, and so forth in these books. For example, material things' reflectance, transmittance, and index of refraction which are premised to be represented as sights are not appearing things, but sights are appearing things. The words "things' appearing" sometimes designate sights, images, and so forth's existing or being premised to exist and sometimes designate their being represented as sights, images, and so forth. The words "things' appearing" designate the former in these books.
    Qualities like color, high-low of sound, and so forth, quantities like brightness-darkness, loudness-silence, and so forth, spatial positions, temporal positions, spatial arrangements, temporal arrangements, their changes are the properties or attributes of appearing spatial and temporal things, and they appear. Therefore they can be called Appearing Properties or Attributes.
    The above apply to the following words.

(1) Words like "appearing properties" and "properties' appearing" where the word of "things" in "appearing things" and in "things' appearing" are replaced by other words.
(2) Words like "things appearing on a sensation," "things appearing as an image," "things' appearing on a sensation," and "things' appearing as an image" where the modifiers like "on a sensation" and "as an image" are attached to the verb "appear."
(3) Words like "things which appeared to me in the past" and "things which will appear to me in the future" where the tense in a broad sense of the verb "appear" is changed.

BASIC KINDS OF THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

    The following are basic kinds of things appearing as mental phenomena.

(s)In general, things appearing on a kind of sensation or things appearing on sensations, and in each individual, things appearing on a sensation

(s1)In general, things appearing on the visual kind of sensation or things appearing on visual sensations, and in each individual, things appearing on a visual sensation
    Sights, colors, brightness, written words, etc
(s1-1)In general, things appearing on the visual kind of sensation with one eye or things appearing on visual sensations with one eye, and in each individual, things appearing on a visual sensation with one eye
    Sights which are planar and are localized to one eye
(s1-2)In general, things appearing on the visual kind of sensation with both eyes or things appearing on visual sensations with both eyes, and in each individual, things appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes
    Sights which are three-dimensional or stereoscopic and beyond both eyes
(s2)In general, things appearing on the auditory kind of sensation or things appearing on auditory sensations, and in each individual, things appearing on an auditory sensation
    Sounds, voices, high-low, loudness, spoken words, etc
(s2-1)In general, things appearing on the auditory kind of sensation with one ear or things appearing on auditory sensations with one ear, and in each individual, things appearing on an auditory sensation with one ear
    Sounds which are spatial points and are localized to one ear
(s2-2)In general, things appearing on the auditory kind of sensation with both ears or things appearing on auditory sensations with both ears, and in each individual, things appearing on an auditory sensation with both ears
    Sound sources which are three-dimensional or stereoscopic and beyond both ears
(s3)In general, things appearing on the olfactory kind of sensation or things appearing on olfactory sensations, and in each individual, things appearing on an olfactory sensation
    Smells, fragrances, odors, etc
(s3-1)In general, things appearing on the olfactory kind of sensation with one nasal cavity or things appearing on olfactory sensations with one nasal cavity, and in each individual, things appearing on an olfactory sensation with one nasal cavity
    Smells which are planar and are limited to one nasal cavity
(s3-2)In general, things appearing on the olfactory kind of sensation with both nasal cavities or things appearing on olfactory sensations with both nasal cavities, and in each individual, things appearing on an olfactory sensation with both nasal cavities
    Smell sources which are three-dimensional and beyond both nasal cavities
(s4)In general, things appearing on the balancing kind of sensation or things appearing on balancing sensations, and in each individual, things appearing on a balancing sensation
    Dizziness, appearing acceleration, appearing rotation, etc
(s5)In general, things appearing on the taste kind of sensation or things appearing on taste sensations, and in each individual, things appearing on a taste sensation
    Tastes, sweetness, saltiness, sourness, bitterness, etc
(s6)In general, things appearing on the somatic kind of sensation or things appearing on somatic sensations, and in each individual, things appearing on a somatic sensation
    Pain, itches, hotness, coldness, etc in skins, bones, striated muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints, etc
(s7)In general, things appearing on the autonomic kind of sensation or things appearing on autonomic sensations, and in each individual, things appearing on an autonomic sensation
    Pain, itches, hotness, coldness, etc in mucous membranes, digestive systems, circulatory systems, etc, palpitation, dyspnea, nausea, hunger, thirst, etc

(i)In general, things appearing as a kind of sensory image, a kind of sensory image, things appearing as sensory images, or sensory images and in each individual, things appearing as a sensory image or a sensory image

(i1)In general, things appearing as the visual kind of sensory image, the visual kind of sensory image, things appearing as visual sensory images, or visual sensory images, and in each individual, things appearing as visual sensory images or a visual sensory images (plural forms also in an individual)
(i1-1)In general, things appearing as the visual kind of sensory image (as if) with one eye, the visual kind of sensory image (as if) with one eye, things appearing as visual sensory images (as if) with one eye, or visual sensory images (as if) with one eye, and in each individual, things appearing as a visual sensory image (as if) with one eye or a visual sensory image (as if) with one eye
(i1-2)In general, things appearing as the visual kind of sensory image (as if) with both eyes, the visual kind of sensory image (as if) with both eyes, things appearing as visual sensory images (as if) with both eyes, or visual sensory images (as if) with both eyes, and in each individual, things appearing as a visual sensory image (as if) with both eyes or a visual sensory image (as if) with both eyes
(i2)In general, things appearing as the auditory kind of sensory image, the auditory kind of sensory image, things appearing as auditory sensory images, or auditory sensory images, and in each individual, things appearing as an auditory sensory image or an auditory sensory image
(i2-1)In general, things appearing as the auditory kind of sensory image (as if) with one ear, the auditory kind of sensory image (as if) with one ear, things appearing as auditory sensory images (as if) with one ear, or auditory sensory images (as if) with one ear, and in each individual, things appearing as an auditory sensory image (as if) with one ear or an auditory sensory image (as if) with one ear
(i2-2)In general, things appearing as the auditory kind of sensory image (as if) with both ears, the auditory kind of sensory image (as if) with both ears, things appearing as auditory sensory images (as if) with both ears, or auditory sensory images (as if) with both ears, and each individual, things appearing as an auditory sensory image (as if) with both ears or an auditory sensory image (as if) with both ears
(i3)In general, things appearing as the olfactory kind of sensory image, the olfactory kind of sensory image, things appearing as olfactory sensory images, or olfactory sensory images, and in each individual, things appearing as an olfactory sensory image or an olfactory sensory image
(i3-1)In general, things appearing as the olfactory kind of sensory image (as if) with one nasal cavity, the olfactory kind of sensory image (as if) with one nasal cavity, things appearing as olfactory sensory images (as if) with one nasal cavity, or olfactory sensory images (as if) with one nasal cavity, and in each individual things appearing as an olfactory sensory image (as if) with one nasal cavity or an olfactory sensory image (as if) with one nasal cavity
(i3-2)In general, things appearing as the olfactory kind of sensory image (as if) with both nasal cavities, the olfactory kind of sensory image (as if) with both nasal cavities, things appearing as olfactory sensory images (as if) with both nasal cavities, or olfactory sensory images (as if) with both nasal cavities, and in each individual, things appearing as an olfactory sensory image (as if) with both nasal cavities or an olfactory sensory image (as if) with both nasal cavities
(i4)In general, things appearing as the balancing kind of sensory image, the balancing kind of sensory image, things appearing as balancing sensory images, or balancing sensory images, and in each individual, things appearing as a balancing sensory image or a balancing sensory image
(i5)In general, things appearing as the taste kind of sensory image, the taste kind of sensory image, things appearing as taste sensory images, or a taste sensory image, in each individual, things appearing as a taste sensory image or a taste sensory image
(i6)In general, things appearing as the somatic kind of sensory image, the somatic kind of sensory image, things appearing as somatic sensory images, or somatic sensory images, and in each individual, things appearing as a somatic sensory image or a somatic sensory image
(i7)In general, things appearing as the autonomic kind of sensory image, the autonomic kind of sensory image, things appearing as autonomic sensory images, autonomic sensory images, and in each individual, things appearing as autonomic sensory images or autonomic sensory images (plural forms also in an individual)

    Simply, things occurring to me at present, past things remembered at present, future things expected at present, unreal things imagined at present, ideas, concepts, and so forth are images.
    When the word "images" is used, visual sensory images occur to us, but that word is also used for auditory sensory images, olfactory sensory images, and so forth in these books. For example 1, when a person who is not present here occurs to us, his or her face appears as a visual sensory image, his or her spoken words appear as an auditory sensory image, and his or her touch appears as a somatic sensory image. In addition, his or her smell with that of tobacco, alcohol, perfume, or the like sometimes appears as an olfactory sensory image. For example 2, when some events on the next day in school or office are expected at home, its buildings and people appear as a visual sensory image, their words and the sound of chimes appear as an auditory sensory image. From the beginning, we think with some visual and auditory sensory images of words. Otherwise, we could not think without writing words or speaking words aloud.
    The above are the most basic things appearing as mental phenomena, and the following are comparatively basic things appearing as mental phenomena.
    Strictly, palpitation, dyspnea, and so forth contain not only things appearing on an autonomic sensation but also things appearing on a somatic sensation which accompany the chest's expansion and contraction, and are not pure things appearing on an autonomic sensation. Even so, in our daily lives, each of palpitation, dyspnea, and so forth is looked upon as a thing. A thing appearing on sensations which consists of things appearing on more than one kind of sensation but which are looked upon as a thing in our daily lives can be called a "Thing Appearing on a complex sensation."
    However, the following definitions, too, will be made in these books. Things appearing on sensations which are premised to be caused by the nervous function which contains some sensory nerves in a narrow sense and which does not contain any other sensory nerves in a broad sense can be called Things Appearing on the Somatic Kind of Sensation or Things Appearing on Somatic Sensations. In contrast, concerning things appearing on autonomic sensations, even when the nervous functions causing them contain some sensory nerves in a broad sense, (sensory nerves in a narrow sense included), when those nervous functions contain autonomic nerves, the things appearing on sensations which are premised to be caused by those nervous functions are also called Things Appearing on the Autonomic Kind of Sensation or Things Appearing on Autonomic Sensations in these books. The reason why things appearing on autonomic sensations are defined so broadly, as will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES," even when a function contains a few autonomic nerves, that function can be a mental emotion or an ego, which is very important.
    Things appearing on autonomic sensations are the vaguest of all things appearing on sensations. Things appearing as autonomic sensory images are the vaguest of all appearing things, and they may not exist, but, because they may exist, they were enumerated in the above list.
    Things appearing on visual sensations with one eye, things appearing on visual sensations with both eyes, things appearing on auditory sensations with one ear, and so forth are each homogeneous in a sense. For example, all things appearing on visual sensations with both eyes have colors and brightness as properties and are three-dimensional or stereoscopic and beyond both eyes. They are homogeneous in such a sense. In contrast, things appearing on autonomic sensations and things appearing as autonomic sensory images are not homogeneous but heterogeneous. For example, palpitation, dyspnea, and nausea do not resemble one another at least, and they are far from homogeneous. The homogeneous are premised to be caused by an identical function. For example, things appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes are premised to be caused by paired neuronal groups' excitement and transmission from the retinas to optic nerves (they cross here) to visual areas on occipital lobes. In contrast, the heterogeneous cannot be premised to be caused by an identical function. Therefore, as far as things appearing on the autonomic kind of sensation and things appearing as the autonomic kind of sensory image are concerned, even in each individual, the plural forms like things appearing on autonomic "sensations" are usually used in these books.

THINGS APPEARING ON THE SAME KIND OF SENSATION AND SENSORY IMAGE = THINGS APPEARING ON EACH KIND OF SENSATION AND SENSORY IMAGE

Though visual sensory images are not as clear as things appearing on visual sensations, the former resemble the latter; though auditory sensory images are not as clear as things appearing on auditory sensations, the former resemble the latter; the same applies to olfactory sensory images, balancing sensory images, and so forth. For example, though another person's face appearing as a visual sensory image is not as clear as his or her face appearing on a visual sensation, the former resembles the latter, and though another person's voice appearing as an auditory sensory image is not as clear as his or her voice appearing on an auditory sensation, the former resembles the latter. That is because, for example, things appearing both on visual sensations and as visual sensory images have colors and brightness as necessary properties, and things appearing both on auditory sensations and as auditory sensory images have high-law and loudness of sounds as necessary properties. Thus, the things appearing on sensations and the sensory images which have common necessary properties, excluding clearness, can be called Things Appearing on the "Same Kind" of Sensation and Sensory Image or Things Appearing on "Each Kind" of Sensation and Sensory Image in general, and in particular, Things Appearing on the Visual Kind of Sensation and Sensory Image, Things Appearing on the Auditory Kind of Sensation and Sensory Image, and so forth.
It is in things appearing on the same kind of sensation and sensory image that things appearing on a sensation and things appearing as a sensory image are alike. It is not beyond each kind that they are alike. For example, a thing appearing on a visual sensation and a thing appearing as an auditory sensory image are not alike at all. For example, another person's face appearing on a visual sensation and his or her voice appearing as an auditory sensory image are not alike at all.

THINGS APPEARING ON PLEASURE OR DISPLEASURE SENSATIONS

    Some pleasure or displeasure almost always appear on sensations. For example, the pain on the skins appears on a somatic sensation, and palpitation, dyspnea, hunger or repletion, thirst, and nausea appear on autonomic sensations, and they are pleasure or displeasure. For example 1, moderate hunger is sometimes pleasure, and excessive hunger is often displeasure. For example 2, though excessive palpitation and dyspnea are always displeasure, moderate palpitation and respiration are sometimes pleasure. (s3)-(s7) have such pleasure or displeasure as properties or attributes. (s3)-(s7) which have some pleasure or displeasure as properties can be called "Things Appearing on Pleasure or Displeasure Sensations" in general, and in particular, Things Appearing on Pleasure or Displeasure Olfactory Sensations, Things Appearing on Pleasure or Displeasure Balancing Sensations, Things Appearing on Pleasure or Displeasure Taste Sensations, Things Appearing on Pleasure or Displeasure Somatic Sensations, and Things Appearing on Pleasure or Displeasure Autonomic Sensations.
    The pain, itches, hotness, coldness, and so forth in the skins, bones, striated muscles, tendons, ligaments, and so forth are included in things appearing on a pleasure or displeasure somatic sensation. That is because those tissues or organs are reached by sensory nerves in a narrow sense. In contrast, those in the mucous membranes, digestive systems, circulatory systems, and so forth are included in things appearing on pleasure or displeasure autonomic sensations. That is because those tissues or organs are reached by autonomic nerves.
    Things appearing on visual sensations and things appearing on auditory sensations excluded, things appearing on sensations are things appearing on pleasure or displeasure sensations. They are psychologically significant because they have pleasure or displeasure as properties or attributes. Neither things appearing on visual sensations nor things appearing on auditory sensations are things appearing on pleasure or displeasure sensations. For example, eyes' or ears' pain is a thing appearing on a somatic sensation, a thing appearing on an autonomic sensation, or a metaphor for mental pain. Though things appearing on visual sensations and things appearing on auditory sensations have no pleasure or displeasure, they are psychologically significant because the visual sensory image and the auditory sensory image caused from them are the substance of sensory images. After all, (s3)-(s7) are significant for emotions, and (s1)(s2)(i1)(i2) are so for memories, perceptions, associations, and so forth.
    Things appearing on a pleasure or displeasure sensation have some spatial and temporal parts where pleasure is dominant and the other spatial and temporal parts where displeasure is dominant. In things appearing on a pleasure or displeasure sensation, some spatial and temporal parts where pleasure is dominant can be called "Things Appearing on a Pleasure Sensation," and the other spatial and temporal parts where displeasure is dominant can be called "Things Appearing on a Displeasure Sensation."
    After all, we can decide whether a thing appearing as mental phenomenon is pleasure or displeasure only according to what functions are caused by it. As will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES," the autonomic sensations which cause functional impulses are pleasure ones.

THINGS APPEARING ON SENSORY ORGANS ⇔ THINGS APPEARING BEYOND SENSORY ORGANS

    Each of (s1-1)(s2-1)(s3-1)(s4)(s5)(s6)(s7)(i1-1)(i2-1)(i3-1)(i4)(i5)(i6)(i7) appear in or on the place where their own sensory group excites and transmits, and do not appear beyond that place. For example 1, when each of us closes the right eye, another person's face appearing on a visual sensation with the left eye appears on the left eye, and does not appear beyond it. For example 2, the pain of skins appearing on a somatic sensation appears on the skin, and this place is where the sensory group excites and transmits.(s1-1)(s2-1)(s3-1)(s4)(s5)(s6)(s7)(i1-1)(i2-1)(i3-1)(i4)(i5)(i6)(i7) which appear in or on the places where their own sensory groups excite and transmit, and do not appear beyond those places can be called "Things Appearing on (their) Sensory Organs."
    In contrast, (s1-2)(s2-2)(s3-2)(i1-2)(i2-2)(i3-2) are three-dimensional or stereoscopic and do appear beyond the places where their own sensory groups excite and transmit. For example 1, while each of us is opening both eyes, another person's face appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes is three-demensional or stereoscopic and does appear beyond both eyes. (s1-2)(s2-2)(s3-2)(i1-2)(i2-2)(i3-2) which are three-dimensional and stereoscopic and do appear beyond where their sensory groups excite and transmit can be called "Things Appearing Beyond (their) Sensory Organs."
    Though the explanations of sensory images are omitted in the following explanations, they are the same as those of things appearing on sensations.
    In things appearing on somatic sensations and things appearing on autonomic sensations where their own sensory organs or groups are not clear, the spaces where things appear are the tissues or organs where their own sensory cells are distributed. The space where things appearing on a somatic sensation appear are the tissues or organs like the skins, striated muscles, bones, tendons, ligaments, and joints where sensory cells in a narrow sense are distributed. The space where things appearing on autonomic sensations appear are the tissues or organs like mucous membranes, circulatory systems, respiratory systems, and so forth where the sensory cells in a broad sense in autonomic nerves are distributed.
    The space where things appearing on auditory sensations with one ear appear and that where things appearing on balancing sensations appear are no more than points. That is because the spatial positions and arrangements of their sensory groups in inner ears represent not spatial positions but high-low of sound and some other qualities.

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA AND APPEARING PROPERTIES

    As was explained earlier, things appearing as mental phenomena are divided into spatial and temporal things and (their) properties or attribute. They both appear. When it needs to be emphasized, the former can be called Appearing Spatial and Temporal Things, and the latter can be called Appearing Properties or Attributes. However, when the modifier "appearing" is always used, sentences will be complicated. Therefore it is sometimes omitted in these books. For example, the sight of a tree is a spatial and temporal thing appearing on a visual sensation, and its colors and brightness are properties appearing on a visual sensation. A little more closely, the spatial and temporal things of the leaves of the tree have the color of green as a property, those getting the sunlight directly have that of bright green as a property, and those in the shadow which are not getting the sunlight directly have that of dark green as a property. In such a case, it may be better to consider that the first property of quality has the second property of quantity. However, even when it can be considered that a spatial and temporal thing (0) has a first property (1) and that the first property (1) has a second property (2), such a description is sometimes made as "(0) has (1)(2) as properties" in these books. In addition, when the spatial and temporal thing to which a property is attributed is self-evident, with the words like "of a spatial and temporal thing" omitted, the mere word of properties or attributes is used in these books.
    In things appearing on each kind of sensation and sensory image, spatial and temporal things appearing on that kind of sensation and spatial and temporal things appearing as that kind of sensory image are alike, and properties appearing on that kind of sensation and properties appearing as that kind of sensory image are alike. For example, in things appearing on the visual kind of sensation and sensory image, the colors of a person's face appearing on a visual sensation and the colors of that person's face appearing as a visual sensory image are alike.
    Properties appearing on visual and auditory sensations do not include any pleasure or displeasure. Properties appearing on olfactory, balancing, taste, somatic, and autonomic sensations include pleasure or displeasure. Properties appearing as sensory images do not include any pleasure or displeasure. For example, what seem to be pleasure or displeasure in mental emotions like anxiety, fear, and so forth are the pleasure or displeasure which things appearing on autonomic sensations have as properties, as will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES."
    Things appearing on sensations and sensory images are either spatial and temporal things or their properties. Individual images which will be explained later are spatial and temporal parts of sensory images. Complex images which will be explained later consist spatially and temporally of individual images. Things appearing on perceptions consist spatially and temporally of some parts of things appearing on sensations and complex images. Therefore all things appearing as mental phenomena are either spatial and temporal things or their properties. Simply, they do not transcend space and time.

THINGS APPEARING INTENSELY OR FAINTLY

    Every spatial and temporal thing appearing as a mental phenomenon has some kinds of quantities like brightness or darkness, loudness or quietness, distance, size, intensity, clearness or vagueness, and so forth as properties, and such kinds of quantities appear. In addition, such kinds of quantities reflect some kinds of quantities of some things in themselves. For example, the intensity of thirsty appearing on autonomic sensations reflects high osmotic pressure of body fluid. Appearing things whose appearing quantities are large or small can be called Things Appearing "Intensely or Faintly." That a thing appearing intensely or faintly appears can be called the Thing's Appearing Intensely or Faintly.
    Some examples of appearing quantities will be enumerated below. They are also represented by the words of "intensity," "intense or faint," or "intensely or faintly" in these books.

○Brightness
    This word represents a kind of appearing quantity which everything appearing on the visual kind of sensation and sensory image has.

○Distance, or farness or closeness
    This word represents a kind of appearing quantity which everything appearing beyond sensory organs, that is, everything appearing on the visual kind of sensation and sensory image with both eyes, everything appearing on the auditory kind of sensation and sensory image with both ears, and everything appearing on the olfactory kind of sensation and sensory image with both nasal cavities have.

○Loudness
    This word represents a kind of appearing quantity which everything appearing on the auditory kind of sensation and sensory image has.

○Clearness
    This word represents a kind of appearing quantity which everything appearing has. In things appearing on a visual sensation, the periphery is vague and the central part is clear. In general, things appearing on somatic sensations are clearer than things appearing on autonomic sensations. In general, things appearing on sensations are clearer than things appearing as sensory images. Clearness appearing on visual sensation can be likened to the resolution of photography. Usually, the larger the number of sensory cells in retinas is, the larger clearness appearing on visual sensations is like the larger the number of photodetector is, the larger the resolution of photography is. In addition, if the lenses of a person's eyes suffer from cataract, the clearness declines like if the lens of a camera go dirty, the resolution declines.

〇Spatial sizes
    Things appearing on the visual kind of sensation and sensory image have the clearest spatial sizes as a property, and things appearing on the somatic kind of sensation and sensory image have clearer spatial sizes. For example 1, in things appearing on visual sensations with both eyes, we can guess the sizes of things in front of us. For example 2, in things appearing on somatic sensations, we can guess the width of the eczema in the back's skin. However, some other kinds of appearing things have spatial sizes though they are vague. In things appearing on an auditory sensation with both ears and on an olfactory sensation with both nasal cavities, sound and smell sources appear, and their sizes appear, too. For example 1, we find that the sound source of a chorus is larger than that of a soloist even if we close our eyes. For example 2, in a human being, smell sources in things appearing olfactory sensations with both nasal cavities are very vague, but maybe some other animals can smell the sizes of their natural enemies. In addition, the spatial sizes in things appearing on autonomic sensations are vague, too. Nonetheless, for example, the inflammation on the whole of the stomach's mucous membrane would be felt differently from that on a small part of it.

〇Temporal duration and frequency
    These kinds of quantities appear in every kind of appearing things. They are serious for us in things appearing on displeasure sensations, that is, pain. Continuous or continual moderate pain is as serious as temporary intense pain. In addition, when the frequency of the same pain is gaining, it is serious.

○Intensity
    In a narrow sense, this word represents appearing quantities which pain, hotness, coldness, and so forth appearing on somatic sensations and palpitation, dyspnea, hunger, thirst, nausea, and so forth appearing on autonomic sensations have as properties. In addition, this word is used to designate the quantity of pleasure or displeasure which things appearing on pleasure or displeasure sensations have as properties. Moreover, brightness appearing on the visual kind of sensation and sensory image can be represented as the intensity of light, and loudness appearing on the visual kind of sensation and sensory image as the intensity of sounds. As was explained earlier, in these books, the word of intensity is used to designate all kinds of appearing quantities.

THINGS APPEARING AS IMAGES = IMAGES

THINGS APPEARING AS INDIVIDUAL IMAGES = INDIVIDUAL IMAGES

In a sensory image, there are some spatial and temporal parts each of which has the following properties:

(1)that each has some properties,
(2)that each sometimes separates from the other parts,
(3)that each sometimes moves independently of the other parts,
(4)that each sometimes fuses with some of the other parts, and
(5)that each sometimes appear and disappear independently of the other parts.

The parts of a sensory image each of which has the above properties (1)-(5) can be called "Things Appearing as Individual Images," Individual Images, Thing Appearing as Individual Sensory Images, or Individual Sensory Images in general, and in particular Things Appearing as Individual Visual Images or Individual Visual images, Things Appearing as Individual Auditory images, Individual Auditory images, or the like. In most cases, an individual image appears, comes closer, goes further, and fade out. For example, in a visual sensory image, the individual visual image of a certain person's body which has the spatial arrangement of the head, trunk, arms, and legs as a property appears, separates from the background, comes closer, goes further, and fades out or fuses with the background again. From now on, the words "an individual image" will usually be used for simplification. They are general words, and individual images include individual visual images, individual auditory images, and so forth.
As will be explained later in the chapter "MEMORIES," some properties which a part of a neuronal source just sensed are recognized and that part is cut out and generated as an individual image's source. Therefore each individual image has already got some properties, has already been separated, and is either of the visual kind, of the auditory kind, or the like. In addition, it is the minimum unit in images. Such minimum units compose the other kinds of images explained below.

THINGS APPEARING AS IMAGES = IMAGES

Things appearing as complex images, things appearing on perceptions, and things appearing on associations, which will be explained in the following sections, can be called "Things Appearing as Images" or "Images."

THINGS APPEARING AS COMPLEX IMAGES = COMPLEX IMAGES

    More than one individual image appears spatially and temporally closer to one another than to the other individual images and things appearing on sensations. For example, a person's face appearing as individual visual images, his or her spoken words and names appearing as individual auditory images, and so forth appear spatially and temporally closer to one another than to the other persons' faces appearing as individual visual images, their spoken words and names appearing as individual auditory images, and so forth. More than one individual image which appears spatially and temporally closer to one another than to the other individual images and things appearing on sensations can be called "Things Appearing as a Complex Image," a Complex Image, or a Group of Individual Images.
    Moreover, more than one complex image appears spatially and temporally closer to one another than to the other complex images and things appearing on sensations, and the same are repeated. For example, many human beings appearing as complex images appear spatially and temporally closer to one another than to apes, horses, cows, sheep, and so forth appearing as complex images. The former are the image of general human beings. Moreover, for example, human beings, apes, horses, and so forth appearing as complex images appear spatially and temporally closer to one another than to birds, fishes, and so forth appearing as complex images. The former is the image of mammals. That is because human beings are more similar to apes, horses, and so forth than to birds, fishes, and so forth, and because modern people know biological classification, the theory of evolution, and so forth. More than one complex image which appears spatially and temporally closer to one another than to the other complex images and things appearing on sensations and which can be produced by such repetitions can be called Things Appearing as a Complex Image, a Complex Image, or a Group of Complex Images.
    Every complex image consists spatially and temporally of a lot of individual images or some complex images. After all, every complex image consists spatially and temporally of a lot of individual images.
    A complex image usually consists of more than one kind of individual sensory image, that is, different kinds of individual sensory images. For example 1, a particular human being appearing as a complex image consists of his or her faces and bodies appearing as individual visual images, his or her spoken words and names appearing as individual auditory images, and so forth. For example 2, general human beings appearing as a complex images consists of a lot of particular human beings' faces and bodies, their walking up right on two legs and making fire, and so forth appearing as individual visual images, spoken words of "man," "woman," "human," "being," "Homo," "sapiens," and so forth appearing as individual auditory images, and so forth. When it needs to be emphasized that a complex image consists of different kinds of individual sensory images, it can be called a Complex Image of Different Kinds.
    However, a few kinds of individual sensory images are usually dominant in a complex image. Above all, in human beings, individual visual images and individual auditory ones are dominant. For example, individual visual ones are dominant in complex images in mathematical or physical thinking where numerical formulas are often used, and the auditory ones are dominant in complex images in daily thinking where spoken words are usually used. The complex images where individual visual images are dominant, those where auditory ones are dominant, those where visual ones and auditory ones are dominant, or the like can be called "Visual (Complex) Images," "Auditory (Complex) Images," "Visual and Auditory (Complex) Images," or the like. When they have been defined so, it is not an exaggeration to say that complex images are visual ones, auditory ones, or visual and auditory ones in human beings.
    Though some examples of the following have already been enumerated, the images of language, that is, lingual images are generated in human beings. That is, language is not only the means of transmission but also that of associations and thinkings. The images of spoken words are auditory images, and those of written words are visual images.
    Complex images are the substance of what is called "Ideas." About particular things and general things, please refer to "PARTICULAR THINGS AND GENERAL THINGS." While some particular things sometimes appear as individual images, general things, functions, and so forth all appear as complex images, and do not appear as individual images. What are called abstract things appear as complex images, too. An example of general human beings has been described above. As another example, universal gravitation appears as a complex image consisting of the arrows representing vectors appearing as individual visual images, spoken words of "Universal" and "Gravitation" appearing as individual auditory images, and so forth.

SENSORY IMAGES AND COMPLEX IMAGES

Both sensory images and complex images consist of individual images. However, the former do so on the basis of whether they are visual, auditory, or the like, and the latter do so on the basis of spatial and temporal closeness. Each of the former are like what is made by slicing some of the latter, and each of the former make no sense by itself. It is the latter that is important for feelings, desires, egos, thinkings, and so forth which will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES," and the former can be nearly ignored there. Nonetheless, the former cannot be ignored in this book, which explain memories in the final chapter. The reason is simply explained here. At the final stage of a memory, individual visual images are replayed by the visual kind of replay and comprise a visual sensory image, individual auditory images are replayed by the auditory kind of replay and comprise an auditory sensory image, and the same applies to individual olfactory images, individual balancing images, and so forth.

THINGS APPEARING ON PERCEPTIONS

    Sometimes, some things appearing on some kinds of sensations (A) appear, immediately thereafter some complex images (B) appear spatially and temporally closer to A than to any other appearing things. This can be called A' s Being Perceived or Perception as A. In addition, A and B can be called Things Appearing on a Perception. In A's perception as B, when A and B overlap almost completely, it can be called A's Being Recognized or Identified, or Recognition or Identification as B. In addition, then, A and B can be called Things Appearing on a Recognition or Identification. For example, sometimes, a particular person's face appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes appears, immediately thereafter his or her face appearing as visual complex images (as if) with both eyes and his or her name appearing as auditory complex images (as if) with both ears appear spatially and temporally closer to A than to the other particular persons' or the background. This is that his or her face is perceived as his or hers. Without such a perception, his or her face would be a mere material thing and he or she would not be even an animal or a living thing.
    Because the meaning of the words of appearing close includes that of overlapping, that of perceptions includes that of recognitions or identifications. In other words, the special cases of perceptions are recognitions or identifications.
    Only in things appearing on sensations, we cannot recognize any part of them as a "thing." For example, we cannot recognize a person's body as a particular or general human being or even an animal or a living thing. For the first time in things appearing on a perception when a part of things appearing on sensations (A) and some complex images (B) overlap with each other that part is recognized as a thing. Even if that part is the body of a stranger and his or her complex images have not been generated yet, when that part overlap with general human beings' complex images, we can recognize that part as one of general human beings.

A LIMITED NUMBER OR LESS OF IMAGES' APPEARING

In a time of tenths of a second or less, a limited number or less of complex images appear, some of them appear intensely, and others appear faintly. For example, when each of us thinks of the self, its images appear intensely, the images of some other persons or the society appear faintly. That is the substance of some parts of what is called "consciousness."
However, the limited number is not determined by species or individual but varies in situations. For example, when some images appear very intensely, the number gets small. For example, when one's boy or girl friend appears as a complex image, the number is small.

THINGS APPEARING ON ASSOCIATIONS

In the time of tenths of a second or more, some things appearing on perceptions, which are some parts of things appearing on sensations (0) and some complex images (A), appear, immediately thereafter some complex images (B) appear spatially and temporally close to A, immediately thereafter some other complex images (C) appear spatially and temporally close to B, and the same are repeated. This can be called B's Being Associated (as Complex Images) or Assocaition (Directly) from A, C's Being Associated or Association (Directly) from C, and so forth; B, C, and so forth's Being Associated or Association form A, C, D, and so forth's Being Associated or Association from B, and so forth; C, D, and so forth's Being Associated or Association (Indirectly) from A, D, E, and so forth's Being Associated or Association (Indirectly) from B, and so forth. In addition, A, B, and so forth can be called "Things Appearing on an Association." For example, when each of us wakes up in the morning, the window is perceived, our town is associated , our office or school is associated, the people belonging to it are associated, and the same are repeated. This series of complex images are things appearing on an association.
While complex images compose things appearing on an association, the latter can also be looked upon as one complex image though it is temporally prolonged. However, the series of those components appear in the time of tenths of a second or more. The complex images appearing in time of tenths of a second or less undergo such limitation as the water in one dam undergoes, as was explained in the above section. In contrast, a complex images appearing in the time of tenths of a second or more undergoes such limitation as the water in a series of dams undergoes. Therefore they can be distinguished. Complex images appearing in the time of tenths of a second or less can be called Complex Images "in a Narrow Sense," and a prolonged complex image appearing in the time of tenths of a second or more, that is, things appearing as an association can also be called a Complex Image in a Broad Sense. All the same, when they do not need to be distinguished, they are called Things Appearing as Complex Images (in a Broad Sense) or Complex Images (in a Broad Sense) in these books.

Things Appearing as Images = Images

Now we have found the following three groups.

Group (1): Things appearing as complex images (in a narrow sense) = Complex images (in a narrow sense)
Group (2): Things appearing on perceptions
Group (3): Things appearing on associations

(1)(2)(3) contain (1), and the most significant for memories, emotions, egos, and thinkings are (1). In addition, if the words "things appearing as complex images in a narrow sense, things appearing on perceptions, or things appearing on associations," are always used, sentences would be complicated. Therefore (1)(2)(3) are also called Things Appearing as (Complex) Images (in a Broad Sense) or (Complex) Images (in a Broad Sense) in these books. That is, the word "images" or "complex images" designate complex images in a narrow sense, things appearing on perceptions, or things appearing on associations in these books.
In addition, in the same way as in the above chapters, (1)(2)(3) where individual visual images individual auditory images, individual visual images and individual auditory images, or the like are dominant can be called Visual Images, Auditory Images, Visual and Auditory Images, or the like.

WORDS APPEARING AS IMAGES = LANGUAGE APPEARING AS IMAGES = LINGUAL IMAGES

    In human beings, spoken words are sensed on auditory sensations and are generated and memorized and stored and recollected as auditory images. In addition, written words and signs are sensed on visual sensations and memorized and stored and recollected as visual images. In addition, it is probable that Braille are sensed on somatic sensations and memorized and stored and recollected as somatic images. The images of spoken words, written words, signs, Braille, and so forth can be called "Words Appearing as Images," "Language Appearing as Images," "Lingual Images," or the like.
    We are shown not only words but also the things which they represent by our elders like parents, or it is sometimes clear in situations which things they represent. Therefore, when lingual images are generated or renewed, the images of the things which they represent are also generated or renewed, and the neuronal ways among their sources are activated on the basis of temporal closeness. While those are repeated, when those words are perceived, those things which they represent, too, are associated, and those words come to have "meanings."
    Of course, words or language are the means for not only associations or thinkings but also transmissions and storages. In internal situations, with words, complicated complex images, that is, ideas are generated or renewed and memorized and stored and recollected. In outer situations, ideas are not only transmitted as spoken words but also transmitted and stored as written words and sighs beyond generations and regions. Thus, complicated ideas like the Ptolemaic system or the Copernican system, the Creation or Darwinism, and aristocracy or democracy are constructed in the human history. Some of them are dissolved or reconstructed but a lot of them are forgotten and lost.

INTENSITIES OF IMAGES

Every image has intensity as a property as the average of the intensities of the individual images or parts of things appearing on sensations which it consists of. For example, when each of us thinks of a human being as an individual, its images appear more intensely than the images of the society.

COMPOSITION OF THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

Things appearing as mental phenomena are either (1) things appearing on sensations, (2) sensory images, (3) individual images, (4) complex images, (5) things appearing on perceptions, (6) things appearing on associations, (7) things appearing on emotions, (8) things appearing on egos, or (9) things appearing on thinkings. Out of them, (1) consist of (1), (2)(3)(4)(6)　consist of (3), and (5)(7)(8)(9) consist of (1)(3). After all, all things appearing as mental phenomena consist spatially and temporarily of things appearing on sensations or individual images. As was explained earlier, all things appearing on sensations and all individual images are spatial temporal things or their properties. Therefore all things appearing as mental phenomena are spatial and temporal things or their properties. That is, they do not transcend space and time.

A CONTINUITY OF THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

As long as each of us is awake or is dreaming, something appearing as mental phenomena appears continuously. If we could close our eyes completely, we could hear something. If we could close our eyes and ears completely, we could feel our hands, masks, or the like blocking them. If things appearing on visual, auditory, and somatic sensations could be blocked, hunger or thirst could appear on autonomic sensations. If things appearing on sensations could be blocked, some images would appear continuously as long as each of us is awake or is dreaming. Such a continuity can be called a "Continuity of Appearing Things" or a "Continuity of Images." It is the substance of what is called a "Continuity of Consciousness," "Stream of Consciousness," or the like.
When each of us is asleep and is not dreaming or is unconscious, nothing appears. All the same, as long as each of us wakes up or dreams again and has memories, appearing things are looked upon as continual or intermittent. For example, when each of us wakes up in the morning, the events of yesterday and the schedules of today appear as images.

NERVOUS FUNCTIONS CAUSING THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

    Every kind of things appearing as mental phenomena is premised to be caused by some things in themselves. For example, things appearing on a visual sensation are premised to be caused by the photons which reach the retinas, the material things and their functions which reflect, permeate, and refract the photons reaching the retinas, the neuronal group's excitement and transmission from the retinas to optic nerves to visual areas on occipital lobes, and so forth.
    In a nervous system, every kind of things appearing as mental phenomena is premised to be caused by (1) the nervous function as a source, (2) the nervous function replaying the source, and (3) the nervous functions dealing with the source in some ways other than replay. (1)(2)(3) can be called the "Nervous Function Causing the (Kind of) Things Appearing (as Mental Phenomena)." For example, the neuronal group's excitement and transmission from the retinas to optic nerves to visual areas on occipital lobes, and so forth are the nervous function causing things appearing on a visual sensation.
    In addition, the nervous function causing things appearing on a sensation can be called a "Sensation," and that causing things appearing as a sensory image can be called the "Recollection of the Sensory Image" or a Recollection.
    These words imply the things appearing as mental phenomena caused by them in our daily lives. For example, when we use the word "sensation," not only eyes, ears, or nerves but also sights, sounds, touches, and so forth occur to us. Therefore

(S) a sensation and the things appearing on the sensation which it causes
(R) the recollection of a sensory image and the sensory image which it causes

can also be called

(S') a Sensation
(R') the Recollection of a Sensory Image ( = a Recollection)

    The following is their details.

[nf] The nervous functions causing things appearing as mental phenomena
  [s]In general, a kind of sensation or sensations, and in each individual, a sensation
    [s1]In general, the visual kind of sensation or visual sensations, and in each individual, a visual sensation
      [s1-1]In general, the visual kind of sensation with one eye or visual sensations with one eye, and in each individual, a visual sensation with one eye
      [s1-2]In general, the visual kind of sensation with both eyes or visual sensations with both eyes, and in each individual, a visual sensation with both eyes
    [s2]In general, the auditory kind of sensation or auditory sensations, and in each individual, an auditory sensation
      [s2-1]In general, the auditory kind of sensation with one ear or auditory sensations with one ear, and in each individual, an auditory sensation with one ear
      [s2-2]In general, the auditory kind of sensation with both ears or auditory sensations with both ears, and in each individual, an auditory sensation with both ears
    [s3]In general, the olfactory kind of sensation or olfactory sensations, and in each individual, an olfactory sensation
      [s3-1]In general, the olfactory kind of sensation with one nasal cavity or olfactory sensations with one nasal cavity, and in each individual, an olfactory sensation with one nasal cavity
      [s3-2]In general, the olfactory kind of sensation with both nasal cavities or olfactory sensations with both nasal cavities, and in each individual, an olfactory sensation with both nasal cavities
    [s4]In general, the balancing kind of sensation or balancing sensations, and in each individual, a balancing sensation
    [s5]In general, the taste kind of sensation or taste sensations, and in each individual, a taste sensation
    [s6]In general, somatic kind of sensation or somatic sensations, and in each individual, a somatic sensation
    [s7]In general, autonomic kinds of sensations or autonomic sensations, and in each individual, autonomic sensations (a plural form also in an individual)
  [i]In general the recollection of a kind of sensory image or recollections of sensory images, and in each individual, the recollection of a sensory image
    [i1]In general, the recollection of the visual kind of sensory image or recollections of visual sensory images, and in each individual, the recollection of a visual sensory image
      [i1-1]In general, the recollection of the visual kind of sensory image (as if) with one eye or recollections of visual sensory images (as if) with one eye, and in each individual, the recollection of a visual sensory image (as if) with one eye
      [i1-2]In general, the recollection of the visual kind of sensory image (as if) with both eyes or recollections of visual sensory images (as if) with both eyes, and in each individual, the recollection of a visual sensory image (as if) with both eyes
    [i2]In general, the recollection of the auditory kind of sensory image or recollections of auditory sensory images, and in each individual, the recollection of an auditory sensory image
      [i2-1]In general, the recollection of the auditory kind of sensory image (as if) with one ear or recollections of auditory sensory images (as if) with one ear, and in each individual, the recollection of an auditory sensory image (as if) with one ear
      [i2-2]In general, the recollection of the auditory kind of sensory image (as if) with both ears or recollections of auditory sensory images (as if) with both ears, and in each individual, the recollection of an auditory sensory image (as if) with both ears
    [i3]In general, the recollection of the olfactory kind of sensory image or recollections of olfactory sensory images, and in each individual, the recollection of an olfactory sensory image
      [i3-1]In general, the recollection of the olfactory kind of sensory image (as if) with one nasal cavity or recollections of olfactory sensory images (as if) with one nasal cavity, and in each individual, the recollection of an olfactory sensory image (as if) with one nasal cavity
      [i3-2]In general, the recollection of the olfactory kind of sensory image (as if) with both nasal cavities or recollections of olfactory sensory images (as if) with both nasal cavities, and in each individual, the recollection of an olfactory sensory image (as if) with both nasal cavities
    [i4]In general, the recollection of the balancing kind of sensory image or recollections of balancing sensory images, and in each individual, the recollection of a balancing sensory image
    [i5]In general, the recollection of the taste kind of sensory image or recollections of taste sensory images, and in each individual, the recollection of a taste sensory image
    [i6]In general, the recollection of the somatic kind of sensory image or recollections of somatic sensory images, and in each individual, the recollection of a somatic sensory image
    [i7]In general, the recollections of autonomic kinds of sensory images or recollections of autonomic sensory images, in each individual, recollections of autonomic sensory images (a plural form also in an individual)

    Some of them will be supplemented below.
    As was explained earlier, at the stage of things appearing as mental phenomena, things appearing on "complex" sensations was found. That is because the nervous functions which are premised to cause them are complex ones. They can be called "Complex Sensations." Above all, complex sensations which contain the excitements and transmissions of both autonomic nerves and sensory nerves in a narrow sense can be found. For example, palpitation and dyspnea are so. All the same, the complex sensations which contain some autonomic nerves' excitements and transmissions are also called Autonomic Kinds of Sensations or Autonomic Sensations in these books, and the plural forms of those nouns is used even in the nervous system of an individual in order to emphasize that they are complex sensations. The reason why autonomic nerves are make much of is that even when a function contains a few autonomic nerves' excitements and transmissions, it can be a feelings, a desire, or an ego which will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES."
    [s1]-[s7] are sensations which are basic to most vertebrates, human beings included. In animals other than vertebrates, the distinction between [s6] somatic sensations and [s7] autonomic sensations is vague. It is in terrestrial animals that [s2] auditory sensations and [s3] olfactory sensations can be developed to a great extent. This is because auditory sensations and olfactory sensations respond to sound waves and particles respectively which spread actively in the air. There can be some other kinds of sensations. For example, some reptiles have a kind of sensation which uses infrared rays, and some dolphins or whales have a kind of sensation which uses supersonic waves. The explanations of such special sensations will be omitted in these books.
    Sensations other than visual ones and auditory ones are "Pleasure or Displeasure Sensations" which are premised to cause things appearing on pleasure or displeasure sensations. In the phylogenesis, ontogenesis, and aging of sensations, somatic, autonomic, taste, and olfactory ones precede and survive the others. Therefore every animal having some sensations has some pleasure or displeasure sensations.
    Recollections of sensory images come clear in some mammals, above all, in human beings. Anyway, the recollections of sensory images other than those of visual kind and auditory kind are not clear. Simply, images are either visual ones or auditory ones. All the same, because it cannot be said that the others never exist, the others were enumerated above. All the same, most images are visual images, auditory images, or visual and auditory images. Therefore the explanation of images in these books are practically that of them.
    Though the neuronal functions which are premised to cause things appearing as complex images will be explained in detail in the chapter "MEMORIES," they can be called Recollections of Complex Images. That is, the word of "recollections" can be used for not only the neuronal functions premised to cause sensory images but also those premised to cause complex images. Though the word of recollection often designates remembering some past events in our daily lives, it designates a nervous function causing images of not only past things but also present things, future things, and unreal things in these books.

PERCEPTIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS

The neuronal functions which are premised to cause things appearing on perceptions and things appearing on associations can be called Perceptions and Associations respectively. The former consist of some sensations, some recollections of complex images, which will be explained in the chapter of "MEMORIES," and the functions between them, and the latter consist of some recollections of complex images and the functions between them. Those functions between them are the recognitions of individual images' sources, the excitements and transmissions of the neuronal ways among individual images' sources, and so forth, which will be explained in the chapter of "MEMORIES."

THINGS' BEING SENSED AND THINGS' BEING RECOLLECTED AS IMAGES

Though a little hastefully, that the sensation's source of a thing is replayed can be called the thing 's Being Sensed, and that the complex image's source of a thing is replayed can be called the thing 's Being Recollected (as a (Complex Image). In addition, that the the perception, recognition, or association's source of a thing is replayed can be called the thing's Being Perceived, recognized, or Associated.
Again, though the words "being recollected" often mean remembering some past things in our daily lives, they also mean present things' occurring, future things' being expected, and unreal things' being imagined in these books.

THE INDIVIDUALITY OF SENSATIONS, RECOLLECTIONS, AND MENTAL FUNCTIONS

By definition, the bodies of individuals of animals are separated from one another. Therefore none of the neuronal groups in the nervous system of an individual join to, transmit to, are joined to by, or are transmitted to by those of other individuals. Therefore it is premised that it never happens that the things appearing to you appear to me or that the things appearing to me appear to you. For example, though your face is appearing to me on my visual sensation, my face appearing to you on your visual sensation never appears to me. However, two animals' bodies which are to be two individuals are exceptionally delivered with them agglutinated in periphery. Then, their peripheral nervous system are sometimes tangled, too. Then, pain, hotness, and so forth appearing to one of them on a somatic sensation or autonomic sensations sometimes appear to another, too. All the same, no neuronal groups causing recollections of images in central nervous systems have been tangled. Therefore, as far as the animals on the earth so far are concerned, it has never happened that some individuals thinks what others thinks. Again, it has never happened as far as the animals including human beings on the earth so far are concerned. If the neuronal groups causing recollections of images should be tangled, it would be premised to happen. That is, it is not the absolute truth that "the things appearing to you never appear to me, and the things appearing to me never appear to you."

THE SAME KIND OF CONTINUOUS SENSATION AND MEMORY = EACH KIND OF CONTINUOUS SENSATION AND MEMORY

    Visual sensory images resemble things appearing on visual sensations in things appearing on the visual kind of sensation and sensory image, auditory sensory images resemble things appearing on auditory sensations in the auditory kind of sensation and sensory image, and the same applies to olfactory sensory images, balancing sensory images, and so forth. Thus, the kinds like the visual kind, the auditory kind, and so forth were recognized at the stage of things appearing as mental phenomena.
    Moreover, because of the similarity of a kind of sensory image to things appearing on the same kind of sensation, we can guess that between

(1) a kind of sensation

and

(3) the recollection of the same kind of sensory image

there are

(2) some nervous functions which are caused or changed by (1) and which cause or change (3),

and that (1)(2)(3) compose a smaller nervous system in the nervous system of an individual and are a continuous function. While (1)(3) cause something appearing directly, (2) do not do so directly. (2) can be called a "Kind of Latent Memory" or Latent Memories in general, and in particular, the Visual Kind of Latent Memory or Visual Latent Memories, the Auditory Kind of Latent Memory or Auditory Latent Memories, or the like. Moreover, (2)(3) can be called a Kind of Memory or Memories in general, and in particular, the Visual Kind of Memory or Visual Memories, the Auditory Kind of Memory or Auditory Memories, or the like. In addition, (1)(2)(3) can be called the Same Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Memory or Each Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Memory, or a Continuous Sensation and Memory in general, and in particular, the Visual Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Memory or a Visual (Continuous) Sensation and Memory, the Auditory Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Memory or an Auditory (Continuous) Sensation and Memory, or the like.
    In each kind of continuous sensation and memory, there exist and function its own source, replay, and processing functions in a narrow sense which will be explained later. For example, there are visual source, visual replay, and visual processing functions in a narrow sense in the visual kind of continuous sensation and memory.
    Of course, the details of memories will be explained in the chapter "MEMORIES." In addition, not only each kind of memory but also the integration of different kinds of memories will be explained in it.

SOURCES OF THINGS APPEARING AS MENTAL PHENOMENA

    Everything appearing as a mental phenomenon is premised to be caused with making something in itself a source. Something in itself premised to cause some things appearing as mental phenomena with making itself a source can be called the "Source" of the things appearing (as mental phenomena). In addition, in general, the source of the things appearing on a sensation can be called the Sensation's Source, and in particular, a Visual Sensation's Source, an Auditory Sensation's Source, or the like. In addition, the source of the things appearing as a sensory image, that of the thing appearing as an individual image, that of the thing appearing as a complex image, or the like can be called the Sensory Image's Source, the Individual Image's Source, the Complex Image's Source, or the like. In addition, they can be called Images' Sources. For example, the source of the things appearing on a visual sensation, that is, a visual sensation's source is the photons reaching the retinas, the material things and their functions reflecting these photons and letting them permeate and refracting them, and the light sources emitting them, and the excitement and transmission of the neuronal group from the retinas to optic nerves to visual areas on occipital lobes, and so forth. Moreover, the sources of appearing things are also called "Things" in these books. That is, the word "things" sometimes designate the sources of appearing things in these books.
    Each of sensations' sources can be divided into two parts of that in the nervous system and that out of it. The part of a sensation's source in the nervous system can be called the sensation's "Neuronal Source." For example, a visual sensation's neuronal source is the excitement and transmission of the neuronal group's from the retinas to optic nerves to visual areas on occipital lobes, and so forth. In contrast, images' sources are all generated and all exist and function in nervous systems, and they can be called Neuronal Sources, too.
    A neuronal source is either a neuronal group's excitement and transmission or activation and ability to excite and transmit. The details will be explained later.
    Anyway, a neuronal group needs to mature so that they can excite and transmit. A neuronal group's excitement and transmission as a neuronal source can be called the neuronal source's "Going," Coming, or Flowing through the neuronal group. In addition, a neuronal group's activation and ability as a neuronal source can be called the neuronal source's being memorized and stored in(to) the neuronal group. The following are the examples of the neuronal groups which some neuronal sources go through: in a visual sensation, the neuronal group from the retinas to optic nerves to visual areas on occipital lobes; in an auditory sensation, the neuronal group from the inner ears to acoustic nerves to auditory areas on the temporal lobes; in a somatic sensation, the neuronal group from the skins, bones, striated muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints to sensory nerves in a narrow sense to sensory areas in a narrow sense on parietal lobes.
    When the neuronal group which some neuronal sources go through diverges, one neuronal source can cause more than one identical one. When they converge, one neuronal source can go through and the others can disappear. When the neuronal group which a neuronal source go through has a disorder, at least a part of it can disappear. For example, when the optic nerves are squeezed by a pituitary tumor, it can cause visual field defect.
    The part of the sensory group of a sensation's neuronal source can be called the "Sensory Group's Source," and it is different from sensations' sources defined earlier. More accurately, concerning a sensation, its sensory group's source is a part of its neuronal source. The following are the examples of some sensory groups' sources. The sensory group's sources of a visual sensation is the sensory group's excitement and transmission in the retinae. The sensory group's source of an auditory sensation is the sensory group's excitement and transmission in the inner ears. The sensory group's source of a somatic sensation is the excitements and transmissions of the sensory group in the skins, bones, striated muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints.
    The part of a sensation's source out of the nervous system can be called the sensation's "Material and Bodily Source." The following are examples of material and bodily sources. The material and bodily source of a visual sensation is light sources, photons, material things' reflectance, transmittance, and index of refraction, and photons again. The material and bodily source of an auditory sensation is sound source, the frequency and amplitude of its vibration, sound waves. The material and bodily source of a somatic sensation is the pressure to, heat to, and inflammation in the skins, bones, striated muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints.
    Thus, some pieces of a material and bodily source are internal or bodily situations like inflammation within the body. Far from that, most pieces of an autonomic sensation's source are internal situations like the oxygen concentration, the glucose concentration, and the osmotic pressures of body fluids. They are premised to partly cause dyspnea, hunger, and thirst respectively, which are vital for the existence of animals, human beings included.
    It is premised that a part of a source is represented as some things appearing as mental phenomena and that the other part is not. For example 1, usually, no neuronal sources are represented as any things appearing on sensations. Simply, I have never seen my brain or nerves directly. Though I sometimes have a slight headache, what is represented as it is the stretch or vibration of the blood vessels, and it is not a neuronal source but a part of the material and bodily source. For example 2, concerning material and bodily sources, unless I look at the sun directly, it is not seen. Thus, we rarely see light sources in the daytime. In contrast, usually, material things' reflectance, transmittance, and index of refraction are premised to be represented as some things appearing on visual sensations, the frequency and amplitude of material things' vibration are premised to be represented as some things appearing on auditory sensations, and skins' inflammation are premised to be represented as some things appearing on somatic sensations. The part of a source which are premised to be represented as some things appearing as mental phenomena can be called the "Reproducible Part" of the source. For example, usually, material things' reflectance, transmittance, and index of refraction are the reproducible part of a visual sensation's source, the frequency and amplitude of material things' vibration are an auditory sensation's reproducible part, and pressure to, heat to, and inflammation in the skins, bones, striated muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints are a somatic sensation's reproducible part.

THE SAME KIND OF CONTINUOUS SENSATION AND IMAGE'S SOURCE = EACH KIND OF CONTINUOUS SENSATION AND IMAGE'S SOURCE

As will be explained in the chapter "MEMORIES," in each kind of sensation and memory, the properties which some parts of the sensation's source have are recognized, and those parts are cut out and are generated as individual images' sources. Thereafter individual images' sources compose complex images' sources. Thereafter and after all individual images' sources are recollected as a sensory image's source. Therefore sensation's source and images' sources are continuous ones in each kind of sensation and memory. For example, in the visual kind of sensation and memory, visual sensation's source and visual images' sources are a continuous one, and in the auditory kind of sensation and memory, auditory sensation's source and auditory images' sources are a continuous one. Therefore, in things appearing on each kind of sensation and sensory image, images are similar to things appearing on the same kind of sensation though the former are not as clear as the latter are. For example, a person's face appearing as a visual image is similar to the person's face appeared on a visual sensation in the past. A sensation's source and images' sources which are a continuous one thus in the same kind of sensation and memory can be called the "Same Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Image's Source," Each Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Image's Source, or a (Continuous) Sensation and Image's Source in general, and in particular, the Visual Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Image's Source, the Auditory Kind of (Continuous) Sensation and Image's Source, or the like.

WHAT NEURONAL SOURCES RETAIN AND HOW TO RETAIN THEM

(1) EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS OF NEURONAL GROUPS RETAINING SPATIAL POSITIONS

    In (1) the excitement and transmission of a neuronal groups retaining spatial positions, which was explained earlier, the spatial positions, spatial arrangements, and densities of the excitements and transmissions of series of neurons actually joining are retained. As a result, the spatial positions and spatial arrangements and quantities of sources are retained.
    More concretely, the "shapes" or "forms" of things are retained in (1). Otherwise, for example, a ball appearing on a visual sensation would look like an amoeba.
    In addition, quantities like brightness of light, loudness of sound, and intensity of pain are fundamentally converted into the densities of neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions by sensory groups, those densities are retained in (1). In (1), some series of neurons actually joining excite and transmit, and the others do not. Therefore there can be densities and quantities. One neuron in itself, which either excites and transmits or stops, cannot represent density or quantity. When neurons gather and compose a neuronal group retaining spatial positions, they can represent and retain density and quantity.
  In these books, spatial positions and arrangements are also called Spatial Closeness, and Temporal positions and arrangements and the change of spatial positions and arrangements are also called Temporal closeness in these books. After all, spatial closeness and some kinds of quantities as density are retained by (1). In contrast, spatial closeness and some kinds of qualities and some kinds of qualities as frequency are retained by the following (2).

(2) NEURONAL GROUPS EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS RETAINING TEMPORAL POSITIONS

    In (2) a neuronal group's (instant) excitement and transmission retaining temporal positions which was explained earlier, the temporal closeness and the frequencies of the neurons' excitements and transmissions are retained. As a result, the temporal closeness and some kinds of qualities and some kinds of quantities of sources are retained.
    Otherwise, for example, the movement of an object performing uniform linear motion appearing on a visual sensation would be zigzag running.
    In addition, the qualities like the color of sights and high-law of sounds of material and bodily sources and the quantities like the intensity of pain are converted into the frequencies of neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions by sensory groups, and such frequencies are retained in (2). For example, the neuron which was transmitted by a sensory cell which excited and transmitted at 100Hz excite and transmit at 100Hz. As a result, all the neurons belonging to a series of neurons actually joining excite and transmit at 100Hz. Thereafter, replays reconvert such frequencies into the qualities like the color of sights and high-law of sounds and the quantities like the intensity of pain.

(3) SENSORY GROUPS' CONVERSION OF MATERIAL AND BODILY SOURCES INTO NEURONAL SOURCES

    In the first part of a sensation's neuronal source, some functions of the sensory group convert the material and bodily source's qualities like the color of sights and the high-law of sounds and quantities like the intensity of pain into the frequencies of neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions and convert its quantities like brightness and loudness into the concentrations of neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions. Such functions can be called Sensory Groups' "Conversions" or "Coding" of a material and bodily source into a neuronal source or Converting or Coding a material and bodily source into a neuronal source.
    Their conversions are explained a little more closely here. In a sensory group, there are sensory cells each of which excites and transmits with a certain frequency corresponding some kinds of qualities and some kinds of quantities. The sensory groups containing such sensory cells can be called Sensory Groups "Selective and Specialized (Concerning Frequency)." They convert some kinds of qualities and some kinds of quantities into the frequencies of neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions. In addition, there are sensory cells which have various thresholds for excitement. The sensory groups containing such sensory cells can be called Sensory Groups "Having Various Thresholds." They convert some kinds of quantities into the densities of neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions. After all, sensory groups are selective and specialized concerning frequency and have various thresholds.
    However, the above are fundamental conversions, and there can be complicated conversion. For example 1, some kinds of quantities or qualities is converted into the pattern of the change of frequency. For example 2, as is the case with color, quality and quantity, and frequency and density can go intricate. A little more closer, it is probable that the densities of the qualities of blue, green, and red compose the qualities of other colors. Anyway, if it were not for sensory groups' conversions, neuronal sources would be chaotic. When we take it into account, we found that not only neuronal groups in a narrow sense but also sensory groups are vital for sensations.

(4) THE ACTIVATIONS AND ABILITIES AND EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS OF NEURONAL GROUPS SELECTIVE AND SPECIALIZED CONCERNING FREQUENCY

    Only when transmitted to at a certain frequency, some neurons are activated, retain the abilities, and will excite and transmit at that frequency next time they are transmitted to. Such neurons can be called "Neurons Selective and Specialized (Concerning Frequency)." In addition, a neuronal group which contains neurons selective and specialized concerning various frequencies and also retains (1)(2)(6) can be called a Neuronal Group Selective and Specialized (Concerning Frequency).
    As will be explained in the chapter "MEMORIES," some images' sources need to be memorized and stored so that they can be recollected after a while. First, the neuronal groups memorizing and storing images' sources need to be those which can be acquiredly activated. Second, in order for some kinds of qualities and some kinds of qualities as frequencies to be memorized and stored and retained, those neuronal groups need to be neuronal groups selective and specialized concerning frequency.
    After all, some kinds of qualities and some kinds of quantities as frequency is retained, in the short run, by (2)(3), and, in the long run, by (4).
    Individual images' sources can be memorized and stored and recollected in the above ways. In contrast, complex images' sources can be recollected in the following ways.

(5) THE ACTIVATIONS AND ABILITIES AND EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS OF THE NEURONAL WAYS AMONG NEURONAL GROUPS MEMORIZING AND STORING INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES

    In order for complex images' sources to be recollected, a lot of individual images' sources need to be recollected spatially and temporally close, and to compose them. In order for individual images to do so, there need to be a lot of neuronal ways directly or indirectly among neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources, they need to be activated, and the abilities need to be retained for a while. Thereafter when some of the neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources or some of the neuronal ways among them excite and transmit, some other ways or groups excite and transmit, the same are repeated, a lot of individual images' sources are recollected spatially and temporally close, and they compose complex images' sources.
    In each kind of memory, the neuronal source just sensed or just recollected goes through a neuronal group diverging one after another, some properties which some parts of that neuronal source have are recognized, and those parts are generated or renewed and memorized and stored as individual images' sources. Such a neuronal group diverging one after another can be called Each Kind of Memorial Neuronal Group Diverging (One After Another). In such a neuronal group, there are some neuronal groups selective and specialized concerning frequency which were explained in the above section, and they store individual images' sources. In such a neuronal group, the more similar individual images' sources are, the closer they are memorized and stored, and after all, they are classified on the basis of similarity.
    After those are repeated and when some properties which some parts of the neuronal source just sensed or just recollected have are recognized, the following part of the diverging neuronal group or the neuronal ways paralleling it excite and transmit, those excitements and transmissions causes those of neuronal groups memorizing and storing similar individual images' sources. After all, similar individual images' sources can arise and be recollected spatially and temporarily close, and they can compose a complex image's source. This can be called Arousals or Recollections of Individual Images Sources on the Basis of Similarity. For example, when a particular human being is recognized, a lot of individual images' sources of particular human beings are recollected on the basis of similarity, they can compose a complex image's source of general human beings, and that particular person is recognized as a general human being. Thus, first, individual images' sources' arousals on the basis of similarity compose complex images' sources. The part from recognitions to neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources of each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another or the neuronal ways paralleling it can be called "Neuronal Ways among Individual Images' Sources on the Basis of Similarity." These neuronal ways are activated innately (by genes) to a degree, and are activated more by individual images' sources' recognitions, generations, or renewals.
    Such neuronal ways do exist and function only in or along each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another and do not exist or function among different kinds of them. Therefore, through them, only the same kind of individual image's source can arise and be recollected, and different kinds of them cannot. When this needs to be emphasized, they can be called Neuronal Ways among "the Same Kind of" Individual Image's Source's on the Basis of Similarity or Neuronal Ways among "Each Kind of" Individual Image's Source on the Basis of Similarity, and the arousals or recollections through them can be called Arousals or Recollections of the Same Kind of Individual Image's Source on the Basis of Similarity or Arousals or Recollections of Each Kind of Individual Image's Source on the Basis of Similarity.
    Second, there are a lot of neuronal ways among the branches of the same kind of and different kinds of memorial neuronal groups diverging one after another. However, such neuronal ways are not activated innately (by genes). They are activated acquiredly on the basis of temporal closeness. A little more closely, the neuronal ways among the branches of diverging neuronal groups through or in which some individual images' sources which were generated or renewed temporarily close go or are memorized and stored are activated. Such neuronal ways can be called "Neuronal Ways among Individual Images' Sources on the Basis of Temporal Closeness." While those are repeated, when some individual images' sources arise, those activated neuronal ways excite and transmit, and the individual images' sources which were generated or renewed temporally close to them arise. Thus, individual images' sources which were generated or renewed temporarily close arise and can be recollected temporarily close, and can compose a complex image's source. This can be called Arousals or Recollections of Individual Images' Sources on the Basis of Temporal Closeness.
    Some temporarily close things are cause and effect, and through them cause and effect can be recollected as complex images or associated. For example, when a child's mother are one of those who hit their children when they are angry, in the nervous system of the child, the neuronal ways between the neuronal groups memorizing and storing the individual images' sources of its mother's furious face and neuronal groups memorizing and storing the individual images' sources of being hit are activated. After those are repeated and when the child perceive the mother's furious face, being hit is recollected or associated. This is an example of the feeling of anxiety or fear. Thus, complex images' sources can be recollected not only on the basis of similarity but also on that of temporal closeness.
    Neuronal ways on the basis of temporal closeness are between not only the same kind but also different kinds of individual images' sources. Therefore, through them, different kinds of individual images' sources arise and can be recollected, and can compose complex images consisting of different kinds of individual images. When this needs to be emphasized, they can be called Neuronal Ways among "the Same Kind of and Different Kinds of" Individual Images' Sources on the Basis of Temporal Closeness, and arousals or recollections through them can be called Arousals or Recollections of the Same Kind of and Different Kinds of Individual Images' Sources on the Basis of Temporal Closeness. For example, if the above example is applied to this, the individual visual images of the mother's furious face and the individual auditory images of her furious voice are recollected temporarily close, and they compose the complex image of the furious mother.
    In addition, all neuronal ways on the basis of temporal closeness are activated acquiredly, and they make the difference among individuals clear. Therefore, for perceptions, associations, thinkings, and so forth, recollections on the basis of temporal closeness are more significant than recollections on the basis of similarity.
    After all, while spatial closeness is retained by (1), temporal closeness is retained by (2) and (5-2) the activations and abilities, and excitements and transmissions of the neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of temporal closeness. In addition, while temporal closeness is retained, in the short run, by (2), it is retained, in the long run by (5-2).
    Two kinds of neuronal ways which were explained in this section, that is, those on the basis of similarity and those on that of temporal closeness can be called "Neuronal Ways among Individual Images' Sources" or "Image to Image Neuronal Ways." After all, the main part of complex images' sources are activations and abilities and excitements and transmissions of neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources and of the neuronal ways among them. Mainly by them, the same kind of and the different kinds of a lot of individual images' sources can be recollected spatially and temporarily close, and compose a complex image.
    By the way, there are image to image neuronal ways (neuronal ways among individual images' sources), image to function neuronal ways, function to function neuronal ways, and image to emotion neuronal ways as significant neuronal ways in these books, and they need to be clearly distinguished.

(6)THE CONSISTENCY OF THE SAME KIND OF SOURCE

    In each kind of continuous sensation and memory, all the neuronal sources are a continuous one. Each kind of continuous sensation and image's source is a neuronal group retaining spatial positions' excitement and transmission retaining temporal position (1)(2). So are (4), which memorizing and storing neuronal sources. Therefore, in it, some kinds of qualities and some kinds of quantities as frequencies, some kinds of quantities as concentrations, spatial and temporal positions, spatial and temporal arrangements, and their changes are consistently retained. Such retention can be called the "Consistency of the Same Kind of Source."

(7)THE CONSISTENCY OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF SOURCES

    In things appearing on sensations, things appearing on different kinds of sensations appear spatially and temporally close. For example, another person's mouth appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes and his or her spoken words appearing on an auditory sensation with both ears appear spatially and temporally very close. Simply, his or her spoken words come from his or her mouth. In things appearing on a perception, some things appearing on a kind of sensation and different kinds of individual images appear spatially and temporally close. For example, another person's face appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes and his or her name appearing as individual auditory images (as if) with both ears appear spatially and temporally close. In a complex image, different kinds of individual images appear spatially and temporally close. For example, another person's face appearing as individual visual images (as if) with both eyes and his or her spoken words appearing as individual auditory images (as if) with both ears appear spatially and temporally close. Such retention can be called the "Consistency of Different Kinds of Sources." It is premised that such consistency is caused through the fact that different kinds of sensations' sources and images' sources meet or parallel somewhere in the central nervous system, perhaps in the parietal lobes.
    The consistency of the same kind of source and that of different kinds of sources can be called the Consistency of Sources.

(8)SYMMETRICAL PAIRS OF NEURONAL SOURCES

    The nervous system of almost every animal individual is a symmetrical pair. Moreover, in such a larger pair, there is a neuronal group causing each kind of sensation and memory, and it is a symmetrical pair. Moreover, in such a pair, there is a neuronal group which each kind of sensation and image's source goes through and is memorized and stored, and it is a symmetrical pair. Though it diverges and converges, that diverging and converging part is also a symmetrical pair. Though it sometimes crosses, that crossing part is also a symmetrical pair.
    Things appearing beyond sensory organs like things appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes and things appearing on an auditory sensation with both ears are three-dimensional or stereoscopic and beyond their own sensory organs. It is premised that a symmetrical pair of neuronal sources, their replay, and their treating functions, the last two of which will be explained later, cause things appearing beyond sensory organs. That is, they retain even three dimensionality and going beyond sensory organs.
    Neuronal sources retain the things in (1)-(8) in the ways in (1)-(8).

REPLAYS OF SOURCES

    Some nervous functions which treat a neuronal source and change it into things appearing as mental phenomena can be called the "Replay" of the source or Replaying the source. However, replays are the hardest or impossible to make clear. In addition, the border between sources and replays is vague, and they overlap. It is possible that some replays begin with some sensory cells' excitements and transmissions. Moreover, it is possible that the excitements and transmissions of neuronal groups including sensory groups in themselves are replays.
    As was explained earlier, each kind of continuous sensation and memory has its own kind of continuous sensation and image's source. Concerning replays, things are a little different. Not only does each kind of sensation and memory have its own kind of replay but also even in each kind of sensation and memory, the sensation has its own replay of the sensation's source, and the memory has its own replay of the sensory image's source. That is, the replay of the sensation's source and that of the sensory image's source are distinct, and are not a continuous function. For example, in the visual kind of sensation and memory, the visual sensation has the replay of the visual sensation's source, and the visual memory has that of the visual sensory image's source.
    All the same, in each kind of sensation and memory, presumably, the replay of the sensation's source and that of the sensory image's source are not the same but alike, and are not in the same place but in close places. For example, in the visual kind of sensation and memory, presumably, the replay of the visual sensation's source and that of the visual sensory image's source are alike and in close places. For example, though extreme, it is possible, because of the disorders of some nervous functions, that visual hallucination is caused when some visual images' sources which usually reach the replay of visual sensory image's source reach that of the visual sensation's source which is similar and close to it, and that auditory hallucination is caused when some auditory images' sources which usually reach the replay of auditory sensory image's source reach that of auditory sensation's source which is similar and close to it.

PROCESSING FUNCTIONS OF SOURCES

    Some functions which process a neuronal source in some ways other than replays can be called the "Processing Functions" of the source or Functions Processing the source.
    Increasing general quantity, increasing contrast, emphasizing contours, and so forth are included in processing functions, but they exist and function in the places close to sensory groups. In contrast, it is thought that the following exist and function in deeper places.
    Things appearing beyond sensory organs like things appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes, things appearing on an auditory sensation with both ears, and things appearing on an olfactory sensation with both nasal cavities, are each three-dimensional or stereoscopic and beyond their sensory organs, and some nervous functions which make them so are a processing function. Though it is vague in human beings whether or not things appearing on an olfactory sensation with both nasal cavities are stereoscopic and beyond both nasal cavities, it must be clearer in some other species of mammals like dogs, cats, and so forth. Human olfactory sensations were clearer once upon a time, and they may have degenerated.
    After all, it is premised that symmetrical pairs of neuronal sources, the functions processing the pairs, and the replays of the pairs cause things appearing beyond sensory organs.
    As was explained earlier, sources and replays are overlapped and entangled. Moreover, they and processing functions are overlapped and entangled.

REPRODUCIBLE SPACES, SENSATIONS' FIELDS AND IMAGES' FIELDS

    As was defined earlier, the part of a source which is premised to be represented as some things appearing as mental phenomena could be called the Reproducible Part of the source. Moreover, the space of the reproducible part of a source can be called the Reproducible Space of the source. The whole of the reproducible space of the source of a visual sensation with both eyes is what is called the "visual field." The whole of the reproducible space of a sensation's source can be called the "Sensation's Field" in general, and, in particular, a Visual (Sensation's) field, an Auditory (Sensation's) field, or the like. In addition, the whole of the reproducible space of a sensory image's source can be called the "(Sensory) Image's Field" in general, and in particular, a visual (sensory) image's field, an auditory (sensory) image's field, or the like. It is also a kind of image, and a kind of void of images, as it were.
    The following are the examples of the width and depth of human sensations' fields.

○Visual field with both eyes
    About 180 degrees ahead, light-years.

○Auditory field with both ears
    360 degrees around, kilometers.

○Olfactory field with both nasal cavities
    360 degrees around, meters.

○Balancing field
    The head.

○Taste field
    The tongue.

○Somatic field
    The skins, bones, striated muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints.

○Autonomic field
    The mucous membranes, cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and so forth.

OVERLAPS OF REPRODUCIBLE SPACES

First, in each kind of sensation and sensory image's source, the reproducible space of the sensation's source and that of the sensory image's source overlap in most parts. For example, when I find that the mountains have turned red, those which is appearing on a visual sensation at present and those which was appearing on a visual sensation months ago and are appearing as a visual sensory image overlap. Thus, I find the change of the colors of the mountains. Such an overlap is caused by the consistency of the same kind of sources which was explained earlier.
Moreover, between different kinds of sensations' sources or sensory images' sources, some reproducible spaces partially overlap. For example, birds' chirps appearing on an auditory sensation with both ears appear from the space of the forest appearing on a visual sensation with both eyes. Such an overlap is caused by the consistency of different kinds of sources which was explained earlier.

SENSATIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS OF SENSORY IMAGES ON THEIR SENSORY ORGANS

In each of [s1-1] visual sensations with one eye, [s2-1] auditory sensations with one ear, [s3-1] olfactory sensations with one nasal cavity, [s4] balancing sensations, [s5] taste sensations, [s6] somatic sensations, [s7] autonomic sensations, [i1-1] recollections of visual sensory Images (as if) with one eye, [i2-1] recollections of auditory sensory images (as if) with one ear, [i3-1] recollections of olfactory sensory images (as if) with one nasal cavity, [i4] recollections of balancing sensory images, [i5] recollections of taste sensory images, [i6] recollections of somatic sensory images, and [i7] recollections of autonomic sensory images, its reproducible space is the same as the space where its own sensory group exists and functions. [s1-1]-[s7] could be called Sensations "on (their) Sensory Organs," and [i1-1]-[i7] can be called Recollections of Sensory Images (as if) on (their) Sensory Organs.

SENSATIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS OF SENSORY IMAGES BEYOND SENSORY ORGANS

In each of [s1-2] visual sensations with both eyes, [s2-2] auditory sensations with both ears, [s3-2] olfactory sensations with both nasal cavities, [i1-2] recollections of visual sensory images (as if) with both eyes, [i2-2] recollections of auditory sensory images (as if) with both ears, and [i3-2] recollections of olfactory sensory images (as if) with both nasal cavities, its reproducible space is not the same as the space where its own sensory group exists and functions, and its appearing things are three-dimensional or stereoscopic and beyond its own sensory group's source's space. [s1-2]-[s3-2] can be called Sensations "Beyond (their) Sensory Organs," and [i1-2]-[i3-2] can be called Recollections of Sensory Images (as if) Beyond (their) Sensory Organs.
Each of them is a symmetrical pair of neuronal sources, the nervous functions processing the pair, and the replay of the pair.

SOURCES' BEING SENSED AND BEING RECOLLECTED AS IMAGES

    Sensory images, individual images, and complex images can be called Images. The sensation source of a thing's being replayed can be called the thing or the source's "Being Sensed." The (sensory, individual, or complex) image's source of a thing's being replayed can be called the thing or the source's "Being Recollected" (as a (Sensory, Individual, or Complex) Image). In addition, the perception's source of a thing's being replayed can be called the thing or the source's "Being Perceived," and the association's source of a thing's being replayed can be called the thing or the source's "Being Associated."
    As was explained earlier, it is probable that neuronal sources and replays overlap. Whether or not they overlap, it is premised that replays and the sources which are being replayed directly cause things appearing as mental phenomena. Therefore it is premised that things appearing on a sensation are caused whenever and as soon as its source is replayed (sensed), and that things appearing as a sensory image are caused whenever and as soon as its source is replayed (recollected). A neuronal source sometimes disappear partially. Even so, as long as the replay functions, the remaining part is replayed, and something appearing as a mental phenomena corresponding the remaining part is caused. For example, by pituitary tumor, visual field defect is sometimes caused. Even so, we can see the remainder. In each kind of sensation or memory, if all the neuronal source disappear or if the replay is completely disordered, nothing appearing on that kind of sensation or nothing appearing as that kind of sensory image is caused.
    A neuronal source which is being sensed or was sensed milliseconds (thousandths of a second) ago can be called "Sources Just Sensed," and the same can apply to "Sources Just Recollected (as Images)." It is not sources which have not been sensed yet but sources just sensed that are recognized and do generate individual images' sources. In addition, as will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES," some sources just recollected as images cause the excitements and transmissions of some image to emotion neuronal ways, and cause some feelings, desires, egos, and so forth. As will be explained later, some reflexes are caused by sources which have not been sensed yet.
    By the way, images' sources are also called Images in these books. That is, the word of images sometimes designates their sources in these books.
    That the source which is premised to cause a thing appearing on a sensation intensely or faintly is sensed can be called the thing or the source's Being Sensed Intensely or Faintly, and that the source which is premised to cause a thing appearing as a (sensory, individual, or complex) image intensely or faintly is recollected can be called the thing or the source's Being Recollected (as a (Sensory, Individual, or Complex) Image) Intensely or Faintly. A neuronal source whose concentration, resolution, and width is large or small can be sensed or recollected intensely or faintly. Though a sensation's source cause some images' sources and they are a continuous one, their intensities are not always interrelated. For example, sometimes, a person who looked far away and small is recollected as a close and large one, and some spoken words which were whispered are recollected as if cried.

FLOWS OF SOURCES

    A neuronal source is a neuronal group's excitement and transmission or activation and ability which retains such things as were explained earlier in such ways as were explained earlier. A neuronal source's excitement and transmission can be looked upon as its going, coming, or flowing through the neuronal group. A neuronal source's activation and ability is its being memorized and stored and can be looked upon as its lurking or stagnating. Sometimes when the neuronal group which a neuronal source goes through or lurks in has some disorders, the whole or some parts of the neuronal source disappears. Often when the neuronal group which some neuronal sources go through converge, one of the sources goes through, and the others disappear. Often when the neuronal group which a neuronal source starts to go through diverges, more than one identical one is generated from it. Sometimes, some neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions which can no longer be called neuronal sources can be caused from a neuronal source. Again, in each kind of sensation and memory, all the images' sources are generated from the sensation's source, and they are continuous one. Such a continuous source could be called the same kind of (continuous) sensation and image's source, each kind of (continuous) sensation and image's source, or a continuous sensation and image's source.
    In the flow of such a neuronal source, the following (1)(2)(3)(4)(5) can be distinguished:

(1) the part of a neuronal source which has not been sensed yet
(2) that which is being sensed, that is, being replayed
(3) that which has already been sensed and has not been recollected yet
(4) that which is being recollected, that is, being replayed.
(5) that which has already been recollected

(1)(2) is a sensation' s source. (3)(4)(5) will be explained closely in the following chapter. (5) causes feelings, desires, egos, and so forth which will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES."
    Anyway, the time of each of (1)(2)(4)(5) is milliseconds (thousandth of a second), and the time of (3) is from milliseconds to tens of years. That is because (3) can be memorized and stored in such ways as will be explained in the following chapter.
    Some important things which is not involved in memories which will be explained in the following chapter will be explained here and in the following section. Some neuronal groups' excitements and transmissions which can no longer be called neuronal sources diverge from (1) and cause some reflexive functions and autonomic functions.
    Sometimes, the excitements and transmissions of sensory nerves in a narrow sense cause the contractions of striated muscles through neuronal groups other than those causing sensations or memories. This can be called a "Reflex." For example, a sensory nerve in a narrow sense diverge and join to a motor nerve, and their excitements and transmissions cause tendon reflex.
    An autonomic nervous system also involve sensory nerves in a broad sense, and they diverge more randomly than those in a narrow sense or those in a broad sense in visual or auditory sensations. Such a lot of branches cause various autonomic functions like the modulation of heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure.

RECOGNITIONS AND INSTINCTIVE FUNCTIONS

Some properties which some parts of some sensations' sources have are recognized. Such recognition, before causing memories, recollections of images, perceptions, associations, and recognitions in a broad sense, causes some instinctive functions. For example 1, in the newborns of mammals, human beings included, mothers' nipples are recognized on olfactory, taste, and somatic sensations, and this recognition causes the instinctive function of sucking milk. For example 2, in a lot of animals, natural enemies are recognized on visual, auditory, and olfactory sensations, and this recognition causes the instinctive functions of running away, hiding, and so forth. It is certain that such linkage of recognitions and instinctive functions is caused through some neuronal groups or ways distinct from the memorial neuronal groups explained in the following chapter.

MEMORIES

EACH KIND OF MEMORY

    In the above chapters, though it has been explained that in each kind of sensation and memory, the sensation's neuronal source cause the images' neuronal sources and that they are a continuous one, its details will be explained for the first time in this chapter. Before explaining its details, fundamental words will be defined again. In each kind of sensation and memory, its continuous neuronal source can be called Each Kind of (Continuous) sensation and sensory image's source in general, and in particular, (the Visual Kind of) (Continuous) (Visual) Sensation and Sensory Image's Source, (the Auditory Kind of) (Continuous) (Auditory) Sensation and Sensory Image's Source, or the like. Out of each of those continuous neuronal sources, the part following the part just sensed or just recollected and the functions dealing with it, the replay and the processing functions in a narrow sense explained earlier included, can be called Each Kind of Memory in general, and in particular, the Visual Kind of Memory or Visual Memory, the Auditory Kind of Memory or Auditory Memory, or the like.
    However, there is a large difference in the degree of the development of each kind of memory depending on species of animals. In human beings, because they hear, speak, read, and write words, visual and auditory kinds of memories are developed very much, and the other kinds of memories are overwhelmed or replaced by them and hardly exist or function, it seems. Therefore the explanation of memories in this chapter is practically that of visual and auditory memories. In other species, it is probable that some other kinds of memories are developed more than in human beings. Above all, it is probable that olfactory kinds of memories are developed in some species of terrestrial vertebrates. Even so, the explanation of such kinds of memories will be omitted in these books.
    Most of the functions which will be explained in this chapter are parts of each kind of memory and can be said to function in each kind of memory. A few functions can be said to function beyond each kind. Therefore, in this chapter, the words like "in each kind of memory" are sometimes omitted. In that case, please take it for granted that the function concerned functions in it.
    The following words of recognition, cut, generation, renewal, memorization, storage, arousal, recollection, and so forth designate concrete and countable function. For example, if a neuronal group diverges into a hundred small ones, there are a hundred or less of memorizations or storages. Therefore they are used as countable nouns in these books.

EACH KIND OF MEMORIAL NEURONAL GROUP DIVERGING ONE AFTER ANOTHER

In each kind of memory, some properties which some parts of the neuronal sources just sensed and just recollected have are recognized, and those parts are cut out and generated as individual images' sources, classified on the basis of similarity, and memorized and stored. Those neuronal sources which are dealt with in such a way go through a neuronal group diverging one after another like a "tree structure," and the neuronal sources themselves diverge along the diverging branches, too. Therefore those neuronal sources can be classified on the basis of similarity. Such a neuronal group diverging one after another can be called (Each Kind of) "Memorial Neuronal Group Diverging" (One after Another). Each kind of memory has one memorial neuronal group diverging one after another. Though, strictly, there is one pair, a pair of neuronal groups is looked upon a neuronal group in these books.

INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES' RECOGNITIONS, CUTS, AND GENERATIONS

    Along each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, some properties which some parts of the neuronal sources just sensed and just recollected have are recognized. By these recognitions, not only individual images' sources' generations which will be explained in this section but also individual images' sources arousals on the basis of similarity which will be explained in one of the sections below are caused. A little more closely, some properties like concentrations, frequencies, spatial arrangements, temporal arrangements, and their changes, and so forth which some parts of those neuronal sources have are recognized by some nervous functions, and those parts are classified on the basis of similarity one after another. This can be called Individual Images' (Sources') "Recognitions (in a Narrow Sense)" or Being Recognized. These recognitions are ones "in a narrow sense" in contrast to ones in a broad sense explained earlier. For example 1, in the visual kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, the spatial arrangement of a jaw, a mouth, a nose, two eyes, two ears, and a head which the part of an animal's face of the visual sensation's neuronal source has is recognized, and that part is classified as a mammal's face. Next, the proportion of the size of the head to that of the other part of the face, the density and distribution of hair, and so forth are recognized, and that part is recognized and classified as the face of a human being, an ape, and so forth, and the same are repeated, and the more they are repeated, the more recognitions and classifications are detailed. For example 2, in the auditory kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, the first syllable of a word is recognized, its second syllable is recognized, and its accents are recognized, and the same are repeated, and the individual auditory image of the word is generated. Thus, spatial arrangements are significant in visual recognitions, and temporal arrangements are significant in auditory recognitions.
    In addition, while some properties which some parts of a neuronal source have are recognized and those parts are classified, some of those parts are cut out by some nervous functions. This can be called the Individual Image's (Source's) "Cut" or Being Cut (Out). In the above examples, the part of that face is cut out of the other part of the body and the background, and that word is cut out of the other part of the sentence or the noise. Such cutting out of backgrounds and noises is significant. If they are significant or impressive backgrounds or noises, some parts of them is cut out.
    Thus, individual images' sources are generated by being recognized, cut out, and classified. In the above examples, that face or that word are generated as individual images' sources of a particular person's face or an independent word. An individual image's source's recognition, classification, and cut can also be called the Individual Image's (Source's) Generation or Being Generated. An individual image's generation consists of its recognition, classification, and cut. In addition, the individual images sources which are being or has just been recognized, classified, and cut out can be called individual images' Sources Just Generated.
    Individual images' generations take place in the time from milliseconds (thousandths of a second) to seconds. Individual visual images are generated in the time of milliseconds because their spatial arrangements are significant, but individual auditory images are generated in the time of tenths of a second to seconds because their temporal arrangements are significant.
    More than one individual image's source can be generated from a sensation's source just sensed. For example 1, from the visual sensation's source of a particular person just sensed, the individual visual images' sources of his or her face, body, hair, clothes, and shoes can be generated. For example 2, from the auditory sensation's source of a sentence just sensed, the auditory images' sources of the words composing the sentence.

INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES' MEMORIZATIONS AND STORAGES

    Individual images' sources just generated are memorized and stored in the following way.
    There are some, actually, a lot of neuronal groups selective and specialized concerning frequency, which were explained earlier, in each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another which individual images' sources just generated go through. While individual images' sources just generated go through that diverging neuronal group, they activate those selective and specialized neuronal groups. That is, some neurons in each of those individual images' sources just generated which excite and transmit with a certain frequency activate some selective and specialized neurons which has the capability of exciting and transmitting with that frequency in each of those selective and specialized neuronal groups. This can be called Individual Images' (Sources') "Memorizations" or Being Memorized.
    While it is decreased naturally and increased by reactivation, the ability of the neuronal group selective and specialized concerning frequency where an individual image's source has been memorized is retained more or less. This can be called the Individual Image's (Source's) "Storage" or Being Stored.

INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES' RENEWALS

Every time the same part of a neuronal source as caused an individual image's source already generated, memorized, and stored is sensed or recollected, and the same properties are recognized, that part causes the same individual image, and it is memorized and stored. After all, the same neuronal group memorizing and storing the same individual image's source is reactivated. This can be called the Individual Image's (Source's) "Renewal" or Being Renewed.
Because the abilities of all neuronal groups are being reduced naturally with time, the abilities of neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources which are not renewed are reduced and disappear. That is, such individual images are "forgotten." In order for individual images' sources to be stored for practical use, they need to be timely renewed. When it needs to be emphasized, the words of their "being memorized and stored, and renewed," "being generated and renewed," and the like are used in these books. However, when such words are always used, sentences will be complicated. Therefore the word of renew, renewal, or the like will usually be omitted.

INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES' CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF SIMILARITY

In each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, individual images' sources are recognized, cut out, generated, memorized, and stored. As a result, the more similar sources are, the closer branches they go through and are memorized and stored in. This can be called Individual Images' (Sources') Classification or Being Classified on the Basis of Similarity. By this classification, similar images' sources can be recollected spatially and temporally close, and can compose a complex image. For example, in the visual kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, the individual images' sources of human beings are memorized and stored closer to one another than to those of other animals. Therefore the individual images' sources of human beings can be recollected spatially and temporally closer to one another than to those of other animals, they can compose a complex images of general human beings, and human beings can be distinguished from other animals. Furthermore, mammals are distinguished from other animals, vertebrates are distinguished from other animals, and the same are repeated. Though we sometimes use "tree structures" when we classify things, their prototype has already existed and functioned in nervous systems.

EACH KIND OF MEMORIAL NEURONAL GROUP CONVERGING ON THE REPLAY

When the neuronal groups memorizing and storing some individual images' sources excite and transmit, those individual images' sources proceed to the replay. This is their arousals. However, while there are a lot of neuronal group memorizing and storing individual images' sources, there is one (pair of) replay in each kind of memory, and so the neuronal group from the former to the latter is a converging one. Therefore not all the arising individual images' sources reach the replay. Some of them sometimes disappear and are not replayed or recollected. Such neuronal group converging on the replay can be called (Each Kind of) Memorial Neuronal Group Converging (on the Replay). All the same, this and the same kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, explained earlier, can be looked upon as a neuronal group. Each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another and the same kind of memorial neuronal group converging on the replay can be called (Each Kind of) Memorial Neuronal Group (Diverging and Converging) as a neuronal group. After all, memorial neuronal groups diverge and then converge.

AROUSALS OR RECOLLECTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES ON THE BASIS OF SIMILARITY

    As was explained earlier, in each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, some properties which some parts of the neuronal sources just sensed or just recollected have are recognized, and individual images' sources are generated, memorized, and stored (or renewed). Moreover, those just generated not only are memorized and stored but also do arise and can be recollected instantly. Such instant recollections are an instant memory which will be explained later. However, not only those just generated but also those which were generated, memorized, and stored in the past and which are similar to them arise and can be recollected in the following way.
    In each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another, the branches which an individual image's source just recognized and generated goes through or the neuronal ways paralleling them (1), of course, excite and transmit. Moreover, not only (1) but also some of the other branches diverging from them or the neuroal ways paralleling them (2) excite and transmit. As was explained earlier, the closer branches are, the more similar individual images' sources have gone through them and been memorized and stored in them. (1)'s excitements and transmissions cause (2)'s excitements and transmissions, and not only the individual images' sources just recognized and generated but also some of those which were generated, memorized, and stored in the past and which are similar to them arise and can be recollected. This can be called Arousals or Recollections of Individual Images(' Sources) "on the Basis of Similarity."
    A particular thing is sensed; the properties which that particular thing has are recognized; on the basis of similarity, some, practically, a lot of things similar to that particular thing are recollected as individual images; these individual images compose a complex image; the general things which that particular thing belongs to are recollected as a complex image. Thus, that particular thing is recognized, in a broad sense, as one of the general things. For example, a particular human being is sensed and recognized, the individual images' sources of a lot of particular human beings are recollected on the basis of similarity, they compose a complex image's source of general human beings, and that particular human being is "recognized," in a broad sense, as one of general human beings. Such a recognition of a particular thing as one of general things is also one of the means for existence. For example, it is not that this or that particular tiger is dangerous, but that general tigers are so. If we always examined whether each individual is dangerous or not, we could not survive. In human beings, whether it is fortunate or unfortunate, such acquired recognitions of general things have been being developed, and innate and instinctive recognitions like animals' recognizing their natural enemies has been being degenerated.
    Moreover, for example, a particular human being at the present is more similar to that human being months or years before than to most of the other human beings. Therefore the recognition in a narrow sense of a particular human being causes the arousal or recollection of the individual images of that human being in the past on the basis of similarity, and those individual images compose the complex image of that human being having temporal extent. Thus, that human being is recognized in a broad sense as that human being in a common sense. That is, what has temporal extent like human life, even if it is a particular thing, is not recollected as an individual image but recollected as a complex image or associated.
    In such recollections of individual images on the basis of similarity, something is being recollected as complex images already. Therefore they can also be called Arousals or Recollections of Complex Images(' Sources) on the Basis of Similarity.

NEURONAL WAYS AMONG INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES ON THE BASIS OF SIMILARITY

In arousals or recollections of individual (or complex) images sources on the basis of similarity, the branches from recognitions to neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources or the neuronal ways paralleling them can be looked upon as indirect neuronal ways among individual images' sources. They can be called "Neuronal Ways among Individual Images(' Sources) on the Basis of Similarity."
In order for individual images' sources to be recognized, generated, and classified, they need to be activated to a degree innately. All the same, it is probable that their abilities are increased when individual images' sources are generated or renewed.

AROUSALS OR RECOLLECTIONS OF THE SAME KIND OF INDIVIDUAL IMAGE'S SOURCE ON THE BASIS OF SIMILARITY AND NEURONAL WAYS AMONG THE SAME KIND OF INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES ON THE BASIS OF SIMILARITY

Neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of similarity are only in or along each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging one after another and cannot be between different kinds of them. When this needs to be emphasized, they can be called Neuronal Ways among the Same Kind of Individual Images(' Sources) on the Basis of Similarity or Neuronal Ways among Each Kind of Individual Images(' Sources) on the Basis of Similarity.
Therefore, in the arousals or recollections through them, only the same kind of individual image's source arises and can be recollected. When this need to be emphasized, they can be called Arousals or Recollections of the Same Kind of Individual Images(' Sources) on the Basis of Similarity or Arousals or Recollections of Each Kind of Individual Images(' Sources) on the Basis of Similarity.

AROUSALS OR RECOLLECTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL IMAGES SOURCES ON THE BASIS OF TEMPORAL CLOSENESS AND NEURONAL WAYS AMONG INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES ON THE BASIS OF TEMPORAL CLOSENESS

However, it is no wonder that some neuronal groups or ways distinct from them exist and function. Some, actually, many neuronal ways distinct from them exist and function between the same kind of and different kinds of memorial neuronal groups. They are not activated innately but activated acquiredly on the basis of temporal closeness when some individual images' sources are generated and memorized temporally close. Next time some of those individual images' sources arise, those activated neuronal ways excite and transmit, and some of the other individual images' sources arise, too. After all, some individual images' sources which were generated and memorized or renewed temporarily close in the past arise and can be recollected temporarily close, and they can compose a complex image. This can be called Arousals or Recollections of Individual (or Complex) Images(' Sources) on the Basis of "Temporal Closeness," and those neuronal ways can be called Neuronal Ways among Individual Images(' Sources) on the Basis of Temporal Closeness.

AROUSALS OR RECOLLECTIONS OF THE SAME KIND OF AND DIFFERENT KINDS OF INDIVIDUAL IMAGES SOURCES ON THE BASIS OF TEMPORAL CLOSENESS AND NEURONAL WAYS AMONG THE SAME KIND OF AND DIFFERENT KIND OF INDIVIDUAL IMAGES' SOURCES ON THE BASIS OF TEMPORAL CLOSENESS

    Because neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of temporal closeness exist and function between not only the kind but also different kinds of memorial neuronal groups, through them, not only the same kind but also different kinds of individual images' sources arise and can be recollected, and a complex image consisting of not only the same but also different kinds of individual images can be recollected. For the first time through neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of temporal closeness, it comes to be possible that a complex image consisting of different kinds of individual images is recollected. When this needs to be emphasized, such arousals or recollections can be called Arousals or Recollections of "the Same Kind of and Different Kinds" of Individual (or Complex) Images(' Sources) on the Basis of Temporal Closeness, and those neuronal ways can be called Neuronal Ways among the Same Kind of and Different Kinds of Individual Images(' sources) on the Basis of Temporal Closeness."
    For example, when a child's mother often gets angry and utter furious voice, in the child's nervous system, the neuronal ways on the basis of temporal closeness between the individual visual images' sources of the mother's furious face and the individual auditory images' sources of her furious voice are activated, and the child comes to anticipate her furious voice only when it perceives her furious face.
    Some of the things that are caused temporarily close are causes and effects. That is, temporal closeness does not always mean cause and effect. In addition, temporal precedence does not always mean cause. In order to find cause and effect, some observations or experiments and considerations are necessary. All the same, none of them start without recollections of individual images' sources on the basis of temporal closeness.

RETENTION OF SPATIAL CLOSENESS, TEMPORAL CLOSENESS, AND SIMILARITY

Spatial closeness and a part of temporal closeness are retained by the excitements and transmissions retaining temporal positions of neuronal groups retaining spatial positions and the consistency of the same kind of sources (1)(2)(6) out of the properties of neuronal sources explained earlier. The other part of temporal closeness is retained by the neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of temporal closeness and the recollections through them explained in this chapter. Similarity is retained by the neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of similarity and the recollections through them.
Thus, spatial closeness, temporal closeness, and similarity can appear only in recollections of images, perceptions, or associations even without egos or thinkings. The other relations cannot appear without manipulations of images or thinkings by egos which will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES." For example, without them, while the relation of temporal orders of things can appear, the relation of cause and effect cannot. Unless it is found that a thing is functioning to another in some thinkings, it cannot be said that it is the relation of cause and effect.

IMAGE TO IMAGE NEURONAL WAYS

    Neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of similarity and neuronal ways among them on that of temporal closeness can be called Neuronal Ways among Individual Images Sources or Image to Image Neuronal Ways.
    The activations, abilities, and excitements and transmissions of neuronal group memorizing and storing individual images' sources and the neuronal ways among them compose complete complex images and enable them to be recollected.
    By the way, there are (1) image to image neuronal ways (neuronal ways among individual images' sources), (2) image to function neuronal ways, (3) function to function neuronal ways, and (4) image to emotion neuronal ways as significant neuronal ways in these books, and they need to be clearly distinguished. (1)(2)(3)(4) are involved in memories, egos, intentional functions, and emotions and egos respectively.

ACQUIRED GENERATIONS OF IMAGES

The neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources and the neuronal ways among them on the basis of temporal closeness are activated mainly acquiredly, and those on the basis of similarity are activated mainly innately, and the excitements and transmissions of those three kinds of neuronal groups or ways cause the recollections of complex images and sensory images. However, not only that but also the following can be said. Some properties which some parts of sensations' sources just sensed have are recognized, those parts are cut out, and individual images' sources are generated for the first time in an individual. Thereafter individual images compose complex images and sensory images. Without individual images, no complex images or sensory images appear, and memories are almost nothing. Therefore it can be said that images in themselves and their sources are acquiredly generated, and the modifier "almost," "mainly," or the like can be omitted. Images' sources in an individual is what is called "knowledge." That is, knowledge is acquiredly formed. This does not conflict with our daily understanding and empiricism and psychology.
    In contrast to images in themselves and their sources, the neuronal groups or ways involved in the generations of images' sources, the neuronal ways among individual images sources on the temporal closeness included, are activated mainly innately.
    Those can be summarized and described as follows. The "frames" of recollections of images or memories are formed mainly innately, and their contents are acquiredly formed.
    By the way, what is formed innately by genes is inherited by genes and evolved. In contrast, what is acquiredly formed is not inherited by genes or evolved. Images in themselves and their sources are not inherited by genes or evolved. Even if complicated complex images, that is, ideas are generated and constructed in individuals, they are not inherited by genes or evolved. In contrast, ideas are loaded into spoken words, written words, and other various media and transmitted among individuals and stored. Those transmitted ideas are reconstructed in individuals and transmitted among them, and the same are repeated. Thus, ideas go more and more complicated like Ptolemaic theory or Copernican theory, Creationism or Darwinism, aristocracy or democracy, and capitalism or communism. If such ideas, that is, complicated complex images go beyond generations, they are not inherited by genes but transmitted and stored with media. In addition, they are not evolved but reconstructed. However, many ideas are forgotten in individuals or disappear when their media are destroyed or deteriorated.

COMPLEX IMAGES' SOURCES' GENERATIONS OR RENEWALS, MEMORIZATION AND STORAGE, AND AROUSALS OR RECOLLECTIONS

    The above generations, memorizations, storages, and renewals of individual images' sources and the above activations and abilities of neuronal ways among them can be looked upon as the generations, memorizations, storages, and renewals of complex images(' sources).
    In addition, the above arousals or recollections of individual images' sources on the basis of similarity and on that of temporal closeness can be looked upon as complex images(' sources) arousals or recollections.
    In addition, the above individual images' sources and the activations and abilities of the neuronal ways among them can be looked upon as complex images' sources.

EACH KIND OF RECOLLECTION OF SENSORY IMAGE

However, the individual images' sources which have arisen go through each kind of memorial neuronal group comverging to the replay, and some of them reach that kind of replay and are replayed and recollected as that kind of sensory image. That is, it is not that there is a synthetic replay beyond each kind but that there is each kind of replay. For example, the visual kind of replay and the auditory kind of replay separately exist and function. That is, the individual images' sources composing a complex image's source which are to become a complex image appearing beyond each kind on the stage of things appearing as mental phenomena are replayed separately on each kind of replay and recollected as that kind of sensory image.

FUNCTIONS BEYOND EACH KIND OF SENSATION AND MEMORY

After all, the recognitions, generations, memorizations, storages, renewals of individual images' sources, the activatons and abilities of the neuronal ways among them on the basis of similarity, and the arousals or recollections of them on the basis of similarity function only in each kind of memory and do not function beyond each kind. In contrast, (1) the activations, abilities of the neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of temporal closeness, and (2) the arousals or recollections of them on the basis of temporal closeness function not only in the same kind of memory but also between different kinds of memories and function beyond each kind. In addition, (3) the consistency of different kinds of sources explained earlier can function beyond each kind. In addition, from the beginning, sensations do not function beyond each kind. After all, it is only (1)(2)(3) that function beyond each kind of sensation and memory.

THE LOCATION OF MEMORIAL NEURONAL GROUPS

    Each kind of memorial neuronal group diverging and converging is localized to a pair of lobes in the cerebrum of the nervous system of an individual. In human beings, that which practically exist and function are visual kind and auditory kind. The visual kind is localized to a pair of occipital lobes, the auditory kind is localized to a pair of temporal lobes.
    Neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of similarity can be looked upon as a part of the diverging part of each kind of memorial neuronal group.
    In contrast, the neuronal ways among the same kind of and different kinds of individual images' sources on the basis of temporal closeness stretch their axons from a lobe to not only the same lobe in the same hemisphere but also the same lobe in the opposite hemisphere and different lobes in the same hemisphere and in the opposite hemisphere. Their axons occupy a considerable part of the cerebral medulla. All the same, their neuronal bodies and axonal terminals are in the cerebral cortex. Therefore the importance of cerebral cortices does not waver.

THE MEANING OF AROUSALS

From the beginning, as was explained earlier, the word of "Arousal" or Arising has a general meaning. That a part of a function which can cause or change its necessary and direct part is caused or changed can be called the function's Arousal or Arising. Simply, even if a function arises, it is not always caused, and it sometimes end up halfway. Also in recollections of images, the word of arousal or arising is used in that sense, and even if images' sources arise, they are not always replayed or recollected. The reason will be explained in the following section.

NEURONAL GROUPS' EXCITEMENTS AND TRANSMISSIONS' DISAPPEARING

    While a neuron (u) is exciting and transmitting by the transmission of another neuron (s), even if another neuron (t) transmits to the neuron (u), the neuron (u) goes on exciting and transmitting by the transmission of the neuron (s) with the same frequency as that of the neuron (s), regardless of, simply, ignoring the transmission of the neuron (t). This can be called (s)'s excitement and transmission's "Passing Through," Going through, or Coming Through, and (t)'s excitement and transmission's "Disappearing."
    While a neuronal group (U) is exciting and transmitting by the transmission of another neuronal group (S), even if another neuronal group (T) transmits to the neuronal group (U), the neuronal group (U) goes on exciting and transmitting by the transmission of the neuronal group (S) with the same spatial and temporal position, frequency, concentration, spatial and temporal arrangement, and their changes as those of the neuronal group (S), almost regardless of the transmission of the neuronal group (T). This can be called (S)'s excitement and transmission's Passing Through, Going Through, or Coming Through and (T)'s excitement and transmission's "Disappearing."
    In a larger neuronal group diverging and converging, the branches can be looked upon as smaller neuronal groups. The above principle can also be applied to such smaller neuronal groups.
    As was explained earlier, in each kind of memorial neuronal group, the neuronal group from recognitions to the neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources is a diverging one, and the neuronal group from them to the replay is a converging one. They can be looked upon as larger neuronal groups, and the branches can be looked upon as smaller neuronal groups. In a larger neuronal group converging, it is a limited number (N) or less of the excitements and transmissions of smaller neuronal groups which excite and transmit the earliest, the most continuously, at the highest density, the most widely, and the closest to the center that pass through while making others disappear, and reach their destination, that is, the replay.

LIMITING RECOLLECTIONS OF COMPLEX IMAGES

    Therefore, in each kind of memorial neuronal group converging, even when many individual images' sources arise, a limited number (NI) of them which excite and transmit the earliest, the most continuously, at the highest density, the most widely, and the closest to the center pass through and reach the replay and are recollected. Those recollected individual images compose some complex images, and, after all, a limited number (N) of less of complex images are recollected.
    This can be explained in the following way, too, when a reproducible space explained earlier is payed attention to. Every reproducible space is limited. It is a limited number of sources that can occupy such a limited space. For example, the reproducible space of a visual sensory image (as if) with both eyes, in a human being, is about 180°ahead in the same way as that of a visual sensation with both eyes, and when a huge complex image of a soaring edifice occupies it, the others hardly appear.
    Therefore, in each kind of memory, a limited number (N) or less of complex images' sources reach the replay and recollected. This can be divided into the following two cases.

(1) When N or less of complex images' sources arise, all of them are recollected.
(2) When more than N of complex images' sources arise, N of them which excite and transmit the earliest, the most continuously, at the highest density, the most widely, and the closest to the center are recollected.

The above case of (2) can be called a recollection's "Saturation" or Being Saturated.
    However, that limited number (N) varies depending on an internal condition. The larger the arising complex images are, the smaller N gets. Simply, when we think complicated things, N gets smaller and usually becomes one. In the above example, the larger the edifice is, the smaller N gets.

INCOMPLETE RECOLLECTIONS

When we look into them a little more closely, we find the following. It is probable that the individual images' sources which will be recollected do not completely make others disappear and that some parts of some individual images composing some complex images are replaced by some parts of some other individual images' sources composing some other complex image. For example, it is probable that some parts of the individual images of particular human beings composing the complex images of general human beings are replaced by one another. Such recollections can be called "Incomplete Recollections."
All the same, when we look into them more closely, we find the following. In an association, that is, a series of a lot of recollections, those incompletely recollected, as long as they have arisen, can influence the following recollections in the association by causing the excitements and transmissions of some image to image neuronal ways. For example, it is usual that the conclusion is clear though the thinking process is vague. Therefore we do not need to worry too much about incomplete recollections.

RECOLLECTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL IMAGES IN RECOLLECTIONS OF SOME KINDS OF SENSORY IMAGES AS RECOLLECTIONS OF COMPLEX IMAGES

In each kind of memory, some of that kind of individual images which have arisen are replayed, and they compose that kind of sensory image. Thus, only in each kind of memory, that kind of sesory image is recollected. Only in each kind of memory, complex images which consist of some kinds of individual images are not completely recollected. Complex images which consist of some kinds of individual images are recollected as recollections of individual images in recollections of some kinds of sensory images. If recollections of complex images are a limiting function which will be explained in the following section, it is a complex limiting function.

LIMITING FUNCTIONS AND LIMITED FUNCTIONS

    In general, limiting functions, limited functions, and so forth can be defined in the following way.

    There are some sets each of which (F = (f1,f2,…)) has the following properties (1)(2)(3)(4) in each of the individuals of the species of, at least, higher mammals including human beings.

(1) F go through a common process (P).
(2) In a situation (S) and in a time (LT), F arise and can be caused,
(2-1) and in the case (C1) where a number (N) or less of F arise, all of them are caused with their simple tendencies (ST) to be caused,
(2-2) and in the case (C2) where more than N of F arise, N of F which have the largest tendencies (CT) to be caused while competing with one another in the process (LP) which limits F in the process (P).
(3) However, the number (N) fluctuate in an internal condition.
(4) Out of the above, there is some difference between the individuals of the same species and of the same age in those tendencies (ST and CT), and there is little difference in the others.

In the above, the set of functions (F) and the common process (P) which F go through containing the process (LP) which limits F can be called a "Limiting Function" of the individual in the situation (S), the set (F = (f1,f2,…)) can be called the "Limited Functions" belonging to the limiting function, the process (LP) which limits F in the process (P) can be called the limiting function's or the limited functions' "Limiting Process," the time in which F are limited can be called the limiting function's "Limiting Time," a limited function's tendency (ST) to be caused in C1 can be called the limited function's "Simple Tendency (to Be Caused)," and a limited function's tendency (CT) in C2 can be called the limiting function's "Tendency (to Be Caused) (While Competing with One Another)."
    All the same, the tendencies (ST) in C1 were fundamental ones, and tendencies (CT) in C2 always contain ST. Whatever has a small CT has enough ST. In addition, usually, more than N of limited functions arise, and N of them are caused. Therefore, in general, a limited function's tendency (CT) to be caused while competing with one another in C2 can be called the limited function's tendency (to be caused). Practically, more than a limited number (N) of limited functions arise, and N of them which have the largest tendencies are caused. It is the most important thing both in recollections of images which are being explained in this book and in egos which will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES."

LIMITING RECOLLECTIONS AS LIMITING FUNCTIONS

    Recollections of complex images are limiting functions. Let us confirm this.
    Because a complex image consists of some kinds of individual images' sources and because the recollection of a complex image consists of some kinds of recollections of individual images, if it is a limiting function, it is a "complex" one. If this complexity were always explained, the sentences would be complicated. Therefore, in most of the following explanation, that of the complexity cannot help being omitted.

[Complex images' sources as limited functions]

    Complex images’sources, when they arise, go through memorial neuronal groups converging to the replay, and limited number NI or less of them which excite and transmit the earliest, the most continuously, at the highest density, the most widely, and the closest to the center reach the replay, while making the others disappear, and are recollected. Therefore, first, individual images' sources which are limited functions. Second, the individual images' sources compose complex images' sources, and the number of those complex images' sources which have been recollected are also limited to N or less. Therefore, complex images' sources are also limited functions. In addition, each complex image and its arousal and recollection can also be looked upon as a limited function. It can be called the "Limited" Recollection of Each Complex Image.

[Situations of recollections of complex images]

    The direct situations of recollections of complex images are some properties which some parts of some sensations' sources just sensed and some individual images' sources just recollected have. The recognitions of those properties start to cause the arousals of individual images' sources on the basis of similarity and then those on that of temporal closeness and start to compose complex images' sources. Furthermore, their indirect situations are the material and bodily sources which cause those neuronal sources, the materials and functions which cause those material and bodily sources, and so forth. For example, interpersonal relations are indirect external situations.

[Limiting processes in recollections of complex images]

    That each kind of memorial neuronal groups from neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources to the replay converges and that the individual images' sources composing complex images' sources which excite and transmit the earliest, the most continuously, at the highest density, the most widely, and the closest to the center reach the replay while making the others disappear are the limiting processes in recollections of complex images.

[The limiting time in recollections of complex images]

    It is a time of tenths of a second. By the way, recollections in a broad sense include associations. In this chapter, recollections not in a broad sense but in a narrow sense are being argued. A recollection in a narrow sense is like one dam which let limited water pass through. Such a recollection in a narrow sense is caused in a time of tenths of a second. If that time was prolonged, that recollection would be an association. An association is a series of recollections in a narrow sense and like a series of dams, and things get complicated. That complicity is ignored here.

[Internal conditions where N fluctuates in recollections of comples images]

    In the whole of the reproducible space, that is, the sensory image field, the larger the complex images are and the more they obstruct one another, the smaller N gets. Simply, when we think of complicated things, N gets smaller. For example, when a person who is very important for the self are recollected, N gets smaller, and when people who are not so important for the self are recollected, N gets larger.

[Tendencies of recollections of complex images]

    Directly, the tendency for a complex image to be recollected is that the individal images' sources composing it excite and transmit the earliest, the most continuously, at the highest density, the most widely, and the closest to the center in converging neuronal groups. Indirectly, they are the abilities of the neuronal groups memorizing and storing individual images' sources composing it and the abilities of the neuronal ways among them, that is, image to image neuronal ways. All the same, it is impossible to measure them in living things. Therefore, we cannot help depending on our daily experiences or psychological tests.
    Concerning our daily lives, we feel that "we cannot forget those which we think of again and again." As will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES," the complex images which egos manipulate and think of again and again are hardly forgotten. That is because, by egos' manipulating and thinking of images again and again, above all, the neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of temporal closeness are activated again and again and those abilities are retained. Concerning psychological tests, an example will be given later.

[Common processes which complex images' sources as limited functions go through]

    They are the following neuronal groups or ways and their abilities and excitements and transmissions.

(1)The neuronal groups memorizing and storing the individual images' sources composing complex images and the neuronal ways among them.
(2)some kinds of memorial neuronal groups converging to the replays
(3)some kinds of replays

[Recollections of complex images as limiting functions]

    The set of complex images' sources as limited functions and the common process containing the limiting process explained above are a limiting function. It can be called the "(Limiting) Recollection (of (Complex) Images(' Sources)" or (Complex) Images' (Sources') Being Recollected (with Limitation). When it needs to be emphasized that the recollection of complex images is a limiting function, the words of "Limiting" or "with Limitation" will be used.

OUTLINES OF COMPLEX IMAGES

    Though there are no psychological tests devised only for the assessment of the tendencies for complex images to be recollected, there are some which can do it depending on their usage. A writer of this book devised the following. The subjects will be shown several photos or pictures and asked several questions. For example, a photo of the face of a tiger looming from a bush will be shown, and the question "how will you do?" will be asked. Of course, if it were real, the person would have been killed already. Even through such unreal tests, such tendencies of recollections or egos as follows loom up. First, that question does not propose any conditions concerning whether that person was walking in the forest alone or together with some other persons. If that person answer that he or she will respond it alone, the possibility of his or her tendency to be isolated or to be independent looms up. Of course, it is no more than a possibility. However, when some other tests are combined with it, that possibility gets larger or smaller. In addition, when those tendencies are large, when some other tests are combined, the possibility of distinguishing whether it is the tendency to be isolated or to be independent gets larger. In addition, when researchers want to test tendencies other than that to be isolated or that to be independent, for example, that to control other persons, that to show off the self, and that to be sticky, they can propose the condition of walking together with some other persons.
    In the above examples, the words of "isolation," "controlling anything," "showing off the the self," and "to be sticky" have already been used which designate some outlines. These books strictly define outlines of limited functions. The set of the limited functions whose tendencies are formed together on the basis of similarity can be called the "Outline" of limited functions. Complex images' sources or limited recollections of them, too, which are limited functions, have outlines. They can be called the Outlines of (complex) images or (limited) recollections.
    Moreover, the average of the tendencies of the limiting functions belonging to an outline can be called the Tendency (of the outline) of (limited) function. That is, even when the word of outlines is omitted, the word of tendencies sometimes designates outlines' tendencies in these books. Moreover, the matrix of the tendencies (of the outlines) of limiting functions which can arise in a situation can be called the Tendencies or Habit of the limiting function in the situation. When they are defined so, it will be a little easier to statistically treat what is called personalities which are complicated.
    Now, we find that, also in our daily lives and psychology, we have already been arguing about some of such outlines. For example, we argue a particular person's personality like he or she is "isolated," " independent," "destroying anything," and "controlling anything." They are the outlines of functional images and limited egos which will be explained in "FACING TENDENCIES FALLING INTO A VICIOUS CIRCLE."

RECOLLECTIONS OF COMPLEX IMAGES WITH INTENSITY

    As was explained earlier, each thing appearing as a mental phenomenon has some quantities as properties like brightness, distance, loudness, clearness, intensity, and so forth. Such quantities can be called the "Intensities" (of Things) Appearing (as Mental Phenomena). Each individual image has some intensities, too. Each complex image has some intensity, too, as the averages of the intensities of the individual images composing it. It is premised that such intensities are fundamentally caused by some properties of neuronal sources of appearing things like the densities of their excitements and transmissions
    However, some intensities appearing as images are premised to be caused by some inevitable properties of recollections like the delay of excitement and transmission. For example, every image fades in, reaches its peak, and fades out. Most part of such a change of intensity is caused by the inevitable properties of recollections. The intensities caused by the properties of sources and those caused by the inevitable properties of recollections can be called the Intensities of Recollections, and recollections accompanying such intensities can be called (Limiting) Recollections (of (Complex) Images(' Sources)) with Intensity, their Being Recollected Intensely or Faintly (with Limitation), or the like.
    After all, strictly, the recollection of complex images is some kinds of limiting recollections of complex images' sources with intensity. They are usually designated by the simple words of the recollection of images, images' being recollected, or the like in these books.

PERCEPTIONS

In some kinds of sensations and some kinds of memories, that some properties which some parts of those sensations' neuronal sources just sensed have are recognized, that individual images sources are recollected on the basis of similarity and temporal closeness, and that some complex images' sources consisting those individual images' sources are recollected spatially and temporally close to those parts is the perception of those parts. In addition, in the perception of those parts, that those complex images' sources are recollected with overlapping almost completely with those parts is the recognition (in a broad sense) of those parts as those complex images. For example, that some properties which a part of the visual sensation's source of a particular person just sensed has are recognized, and that some complex images' sources consisting of the visual individual images' sources of his or her face in the past and the auditory ones of his or her name and spoken words are recollected with overlapping with that part is the recognition of that part as that person. Here, even if that person is a stranger, if some complex images of general human beings are recollected with overlapping with that part, that person is recognized as one of general human beings.

ASSOCIATIONS

    Some properties which some parts of the complex images' sources (A) just recollected in a perception are recognized, that individual images sources are recollected on the basis of similarity and temporal closeness, and that some complex images' sources consisting those individual images' sources (B) are recollected spatially and temporally close to A, some properties which some parts of B just recollected have are recognized, and the same are repeated. This can be called the (Direct)Association from A to B, the (Direct) Association from B to C, and so forth and the (Indirect) Association from A to C and so forth. In addition, when B and C are recollected with overlapping with each other, this can be called the Recognition (in a Broad Sense) or Identification as C. In the above example, if the complex images of general human beings are associated from and overlap with those of that particular person, this is that a particular person is recognized as one of general human beings.
    A series of complex images recollected in an association can be looked upon as a huge complex image which is prolonged temporarily. In addition, an association can be looked upon as a recollection prolonged temporarily. All the same, such a recollection, that is, an association is different from a recollection as a limiting function in a narrow sense explained above. Complex images recollected by the latter are limited like the water dammed by a dam. In contrast, complex images recollected by the former are limited like the water dammed by a series of dams. Therefore associations are "complex" limiting functions in a different sense from those explained earlier.
    In an association, when N of complex images are recollected with limitation in the first recollection, even if each of N of them is recognized and causes A of complex images' arousals and if N multiplied by A arise in the second recollection, N of them are recollected with limitation. Moreover, not all the N of complex images just recollected are recognized in the second recollection, and so less than N multiplied by A arise and N or less are recollected. The complex images which are recollected in associations are limited in such a way. For example, the perceived building of school or office causes the recollection of some interpersonal relations in it, but the most important one is recognized and causes the recollection of the way to cope with it.
    However, as was explained earlier, individual images' sources, even if they are not recollected, as long as they have arisen, can cause the excitements and transmissions of the neuronal ways among individual images' sources on the basis of temporal closeness, cause the arousals of some other individual images' sources, and affect the remaining part of the association. Therefore it may sometimes happen that though we have arrived at a plausible conclusion, the reasoning process which has lead us to it is unclear.

RELATIONS BETWEEN PERCEPTIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS

The following (1)(2)(3) are possible as the relation between perceptions and association.

(1) A new association starts from a new perception.
(2) An old association is interrupted by a new perception, and a new association starts from the new perception.
(3) An old association is changed by a new perception and the changed association starts.

(1) seems to happen when we wake up in the morning. However, usually, because we have been dreaming when we wake up, it is (3). For example, when we wake up from a dream and when we perceive our bed room, we start to doubt the reality of the dream, and start to wonder why we had such a dream, and so forth. Pure (1) happens when we are suddenly awaken from deep sleep other than REM sleep or from complete loss of consciousness. However, such a state may well be looked upon as being still in a "stupor." (2) happens when an unexpected thing happen suddenly. For example, it happens when we are visited by an unexpected person on a holiday which had no schedule. Nonetheless, such completely unexpected things are rare, too. We are expecting more or less what will happen. After all, (3) is our daily lives.

LINGUAL IMAGES

    In each human being, from the neonatal period to the senile period, many spoken words are sensed on an auditory sensation, many written words and signs are sensed on a visual sensation, and many complex images' sources of words are generated, memorized, stored, and recollected. Such sources can be called Lingual Images(' Sources).
    While words are seen and heard and while lingual images' sources are generated, children are shown the things which those words designate by their seniors. In addition, things which they designate is sometimes clear in the situations.　While those are repeated, not only the neuronal groups memorizing and storing lingual images and those memorizing and storing the images of the thing which words designate but also the neuronal ways between them are activated. Through them, only when we see and hear words, the things which they designate are associated. Those associated are what is called word concepts.
  Thus, lingual images and other complex images' sources are entangled, and more and more gigantic and complicated complex images' sources are generated, and complicated recollections, perceptions, associations, and recognitions become possible.
    In addition, grammar facilitate the development of complicated recollections of complex images, associations, and thinkings. For example 1, proper nouns and some pronouns designate particular things, and common nouns and some other pronouns designate general things. The generation of the images of common nouns facilitate the generation of the images of general things. For example 2, predicates usually designate the properties or attributes including functions of their subjects. It facilitates the generation of images of properties including functions. For example 3, some conjunctions designate cause and effect, and they facilitate the associations, thinkings, and recognitions of cause and effect.
    After all, language is the means of not only transmissions and storages in the society but also those of mental functions like memories, recollections, perceptions, associations, thinkings, and recognitions in each individual.

IDEAS OR THOUGHTS

What are called "ideas" or "thoughts" like Copernican system, the theory of evolution, liberal rights, and democratic systems are huge complex images or series of complex images recollected in associations. In addition, they are transmitted with long words. Moreover, in order for them to be formed, egos and thinkings, too, which will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES" need to function. Moreover, they have been formed in the human society and history, and so their formation need reading, attending lectures, debating, and so forth.

BEING FORGOTTEN

The abilities of the neuronal groups or ways which are acquiredly activated decrease when left alone. When a complex image's source is left alone, the abilities of the neuronal groups storing the individual images' sources composing it and those of the neuronal ways among them also decrease, and that complex image's source loses the possibility of being recollected. This can be called the (complex) image's (source's) Being Forgotten.

LOSS OF MEMORY

With some causes, in an animal individual, that all the complex images' sources irreversibly lose the possibility of being recollected can be called "Loss of Memory," Losing Memories, complete forgetting, or completely forgetting all.
Only an animal having memories loses memories. An Animal having no memories cannot lose them. As long as an animal exists and functions, loss of memory is rarely caused. Are brain death, vegetative state, and the like any exceptions? All the same, they are looked upon as death. It is clear that loss of memory is caused when an animal having memories dies.

RENEWALS OF MEMORIES

After a complex image's source was generated, memorized, and stored, when the sources which caused it is sensed or recollected as images and recognized, that complex image's source is generated, memorized, and stored again. This can be called the (complex) Image's (Source's) Renewal or Being Renewed, the Renewal of Its Memory, or the like.
As was explained earlier, though every complex image is being forgotten, when it is renewed again and again, its ability are retained, and it is not forgotten. Simply, what is seen, heard, felt, and thought again and again cannot be forgotten. Renewals are important parts of memories. If there were no renewals, complex images would only be forgotten, and there would be no memories. Therefore not only are renewals included in memories but also when renewals needs to be emphasized, memories are called Memories and Renewals in these books.

VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS CHANGING SENSATIONS

    Concerning visual sensations, we can move our eyeballs, head, and go closer to a thing so that it can be seen largely and clearly. Concerning auditory sensations, though we cannot move our auricles like some other animals, we can move our head and go closer to a thing so that it can be heard loudly and clearly. We can do the same concerning olfactory sensations. Concerning balancing sensations, we can sometimes reduce dizziness by changing our bodies' movements and postures. Concerning taste sensations, if we do not put any pieces of food into our mouth, we cannot taste them, and we can make them taste intense and clear by chewing it well. Concerning somatic sensations, if we want to know a thing's touch, we can touch it, and if it is too hot or spiny, we can remove our hands. Concerning autonomic sensations, though they are not as clear as somatic sensations, if we have severe palpitation and dyspnea, we should rest, if we are hungry, we should eat, and if we are thirsty, we should drink. Such voluntary movements as make sources sensed intensely and clearly can be called Voluntary Movements "Changing Sensations."
    There is little possibility that any parts of the sources which are not sensed intensely or clearly by voluntary movements changing sensations are generated, memorized, or stored or renewed as individual images or complex ones. For example, things which are only sensed vaguely on the periphery of the visual field with no movement of our eyeballs or head are rarely done so. In addition, there is little possibility that any parts of the sources which are not sensed intensely or clearly by voluntary movements changing sensations are overlapped with complex images, that is, perceived or recognized.
    When some parts of some sensations' sources are sensed intensely and clearly by voluntary movements changing sensations, the possibility gets larger that those parts are generated, memorized, stored, and renewed as complex images or perceived and recognized.

ATTENTION

    However, from the beginning, excluding sensory memories which will be explained later, sensations' sources in themselves are not memorized or stored. First, individual images's sources generated from them are memorized and stored. Second, neuronal ways among them function or are activated, and complex images' sources are generated, memorized, and stored. That is, only with sensations, memories are practically nothing, and memories begin practically with the generations, memorizations, and storages of complex images' sources. Also in perceptions, sensations' sources in themselves are not memorized or stored, complex images' sources which are recollected from them are memorized and stored, that is, renewed. Therefore it is the generations, memorizations, storages, and renewals of complex images' sources that matter in memories. They were firmly memorized and stored in the following way.
    As will be explained in "EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES," each ego can manipulate complex images in the ways of bringing them closer, transforming, combining, dissolving, and so forth. When egos manipulate complex images, the possibility that complex images' sources are not forgotten but retained gets the largest. That is because, though images in general are transient, egos hold them steady to a degree by manipulating them.
    By the way, when the words of manipulations of images by egos are used, they may sound difficult to understand, but we are doing them in our daily lives. For example, we often try not to think about uncomfortable things, and it is a kind of manipulation of images, which is called switching images.
    From the beginning, egos, in thinkings, can construct, dissolve, and reconstruct more and more complicated and sophisticated complex images, that is, ideas or thoughts. If the results of such constructions and reconstructions by egos were not memorized or stored, egos would always have to construct them from scratch. For the very reason that the complex images constructed and reconstructed by egos are memorized and stored, we can, for example, rethink what were thought yesterday.
    Even if egos do not manipulate the complex images when they are generated, if they are recollected and if the ego manipulate them after a while, they are memorized and stored steadily. For example, after we see a person for the first time, if we think of him or her again and again like "what is he or she," "why he or she behaved thus," and so forth, we can hardly forget him or her.
    Thus, an ego's manipulating some complex images(' sources) can also be called the ego's "Attention" to them or the ego's Paying Attention to them. After all, we can hardly forget what we paid much attention to.

OTHER FUNCTIONS SIMILAR TO MEMORIES

So far, we have explained memories exclusively through their main stream. In that stream, we could not explain afterimages, sensory memories, instant memories, and short-term or long-term memories. They will be explained in the following sections.

AFTERIMAGE

Even each neuron's one super-short-term excitement and transmission which compose a neuronal group's excitement and transmission continues for milliseconds (thousandths of a second). In contrast, every reproducible source changes every moment. For example, even if we trace it with voluntary movements changing sensations which were explained in one of the above sections, a running animal's spatial arrangement of the limbs changes. Therefore, even after a reproducible source have changed or disappeared, the neuronal source go on exciting and transmitting at least for milliseconds. As a result, what is called an "afterimage" is caused at least for milliseconds.
It is significant that temporal changes are appearing at present like tracks by afterimages. For example, if an object drags its afterimage on its east side, we find that it is moving westward.

SENSORY MEMORIES

While the neuronal sources just sensed is processed with recognitions, cuts, and so forth, some of them sometimes remain as they are without those processes for tenths of a second or for seconds. This can be called "Sensory Memories." For example, the short words spoken by another person and sensed on an auditory sensation, which were not paid attention to, are sometimes paid attention to after tenths of a second or seconds. Such a thing can take place because there are some sensory memories, in this case, an auditory one. However, only short spoken words can be paid attention to in such a way, and long spoken words cannot. In addition, only when there has been some silence after the words were spoken, they can be paid attention.

RECOLLECTIONS OF PAST EVENTS

    Recollections of past events are only a part of recollections of complex images, and they include that the present things occur to us, that the future things are expected, and that the real things are imagined. That has already been explained. Here what has not been mentioned yet will be explained.
    If past events were memorized as they were in the same way as movies or videos, or the sensory memories explained above, the neurons of a human being, whose number is the largest of all the animals on the earth, would be insufficient. Recollections of past events share common complex images. For example, the persons like parents, partners, children, and friends, who often enter past events are shared. It sometimes happens that some of those who enter an event are of the present age though the event occurred ten years ago, but it will not cause serious problems.
    Again and again, not only past things but also present and future things and unreal things are recollected as complex images. It is present and future things that we have anxiety about and expectation for. Most of our thinking is occupied with how to do at the present and in the future.

INSTANT MEMORIES

    While the individual or complex image's sources which have just been generated are memorized and stored, they are recollected instantly for less than seconds and disappear. This can be called "Instant" Memories, Instant Recollection of images, Instant Recollection, or images' Being Recollected instantly, and such individual or complex images can be called Instant Images.
    By afterimages which were explained above and by instant memories, temporal changes are appearing at present. Simply, by comparing the past which are remaining at present and the present, we know changes.
    While the memories which have been explained consistently in this book are caused through the process of generation→memorization→storage→arousal→recollection, instant memories can be caused either by the same process where memorization→storage→arousal are an instant one or through the process of generation→arousal→recollection which lack memorization→storage. Anyway, instant memories and afterimages are included in memories and in recollections in these books.

SHORT OR LONG MEMORIES

    After a complex image's source is generated and memorized and stored, when it is not paid any attention to, they are forgotten soon. When it is paid attention to, it is not forgotten but retained for hours or days. This can be called Short Memories. Of course, they are included in memories.
    All the same, each of us does not need to think too much in order to establish short memories. When each of us rethinks of the perceived or recollected things, some short memories have already been established. For example, we do not forget a person who we are interested in. In contrast, within seconds, we will forget people who we pass by on the way to school or office unless they are very handsome, beautiful, very interesting, or very strange.
    All the same, things are forgotten within hours or days without any more attention. In order for things to be stored for more than hours or days, those things need to be paid attention to again and again every several hours or days. This can be called "Long Memories." Of course, they are included in memories. All the same, again, we do not need to think too much in order to establish long memories. In our daily lives, what are so important that we should not forget them cannot help being seen, heard, thought of, and paid attention to again and again. In other words, what is not encountered in our daily lives is easy to forget. Above all, academic things is easy to forget. After all, maybe, most of what matter about long memories are what go beyond our daily lives.

COMPLEX IMAGES' SOURCES = IMAGES

Again, when the words of "complex images' sources" are always used, sentences are complicated. Therefore they are also called Images in these books.

ONTOGENESIS OF SENSATIONS AND MEMORIES

In human beings, the sensations excluding visual and auditory ones have already been almost matured. It takes weeks or months after delivery for visual and auditory sensations to be almost matured. That is because they are complicated ones and because their sensory organs' development switches from that in the amniotic fluid to that in the air at delivery.
The frames of memories like memorial neuronal group diverging and converging get almost matured around the age of 3. In other words, they are not matured before that age. Therefore we cannot remember the experiences before it. The frames of memories get completely matured around the age of fifteen and thereafter go deteriorated slowly. In contrast to such frames, concerning the contents of memories, that is, the richness of complex images, that is, knowledge, there are large differences among individuals.

PHYLOGENESIS OF SENSATIONS AND MEMORIES

    These books have defined sensations as nervous functions which are premised to cause things appearing on sensations. In addition, they have defined animals as living things having sensations and motor functions. That is, animals have some sensations by definition in these books. In general, terrestrial vertebrates and some terrestrial arthropods have the most complicated sensations of all the animals on the earth. That is because auditory and olfactory sensations cannot be much evolved underwater. In addition, some mammals have the most complicated sensations of all the vertebrates. That is because they have the largest cerebrums and the most complicated and sensory organs. It cannot be said that human beings have the most complicated sensations. At least, human beings' olfactory ones have degenerated. In the sensations of human beings, visual ones and auditory ones are more complicated, and olfactory ones are simpler. Though the distinction between somatic sensations and autonomic ones is clear in vertebrates, it is vague in the other animals. Anyway, the functions which are premised to cause something appearing on a sensation including touches, pains, hotness, coldness, smells, tastes, and so forth can be called Sensations. For example, if anything is appearing on a sensation in a jellyfish or sea anemone, the function causing it is a sensation, and otherwise, it is merely a kind of response to stimuli.
    These books have define memories as

functions which are premised to cause something appearing as images, that is, recollections of images and
the functions between them and sensations, that is, latent memories.

Then the animals having memories will be limited to vertebrates. Human beings have the most complicated and rich memories, and some species of mammals have comparatively complicated and rich memories.
    All the animals that have memories have sensations. That is because some properties which some parts of some sensations' neuronal sources just sensed have are recognized, those parts are cut out, and individual images' sources are generated for the first time and compose sensory images' sources and complex images' sources. The animals which have sensations and memories evolve from the animals which have sensations and no memories. Perceptions, associations, feelings, desires, egos, thoughts, and so forth contain some recollections of images. Therefore the animals having such functions have sensations and memories. The animals having such functions evolve from the animals which have sensations and memories and none of such functions.
    Therefore sensations or sensations and the functions which could not exist without them can be called "Sensations or More." In addition, sensations and memories or sensations and memories and the functions which could not exist without them can be called "Memories or More."
    The relation of mental emotions→egos→thinkings is the same as that of sensations→memories. For example, all the animals having egos have sensations, memories, mental emotions, and they evolve from the animals having such functions and no egos.
    Human beings have the most complicated memories or more of all the animals so far on the earth. Moreover, on the earth from now on, it is possible that some animals having more complicated memories or more than human beings have will evolve from them or from some other animals.

References

EGOS AND THEIR TENDENCIES

FACING TENDENCIES FALLING INTO A VICIOUS CIRCLE